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PREFACE. 



In drawing up tliese outlines of English History for 
junior classes, it has been my object to produce a 
readable and connected narrative of tlie most important 
events in the history of our country, without any 
political, theological, or ecclesiastical bias, which dis- 
figures so many of our school histories, and renders 
them unsuitable to be put into the hands of the 
young. For this reason I have confined myself as 
much as possible to a simple statement of facts, from 
which the readers, if they are sufficiently thoughtful, 
or are guided by intelligent teachers, may draw their 
own lessons and inferences. 

In order to make the work as complete as can 
be desired, a chapter has been added on the Litera- 
ture, Art, Science, Commerce, Manufactures, &c., of 
the English nation, which, though brief, will give 
the young student some idea of the grand position that 
belongs to England in the history of human progress 
and civilisation, 

B^mng Grovg, Maroh^ 1%1% 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER I. 



BRITAIN UNDER THE ROMANS 



PAGE 

. 7 



CHAPTER 11. 

PERIOD OF THE HEPTARCHY, DOWN TO THE UNION OP 
ENGLAND UNDER KING EGBERT, >FRO]IK A.D. M9 to 827 15 



CHAPTER III. 

£'ROM THE ACCESSION OF EGBERT TO THE NORUAN 
CONQUEST, FROU 800 to 1066 . 



23 



Egbert, 800—837. 
Ethelwulf, 837—858. 
Ethelbald, 858—860. 
Ethelbert, 860—866. 
Ethelred, 866—871. 
Alfred the Great, 871—901. 
Edward the Elder, 901—925. 3 
Athelstane, 925—940. 
Edmund, 940—946. 
Edred, 946—955. 
Edwy, 955—959. 



Edgar, 959—975. 
Edward the Martyr, 975—978. 
Ethelred II., 978—1016. 
Edmund Ironside, 1016. 
Canute the Great, 1017—1035. 
Harold, 1036—1040. 
Hardicanute, 1040—1042. 
Edward the Confessor, 1042—' 

1066. 
Harold II., 1066. 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER IV 
THE EAELY NOEMAH KINGS 

1. William the Conqueror, 1066—1087. 

2. William II., Rufus, 1087—1100 . 

3. Henry I., 1100—1135 . , . , 

4. Stephen, 1135—1154. .... 



?AGE 

45 
49 
51 

53 



CHAPTER V. 
THE PLANTAGEHET KINGS. 



1. Henry II., 1154—1189 

2. Richard I., 1189—1199 

3. John, 1199—1216! 



55 
62 
66 



CHAPTER VI.. 
THE PLANTAGENET KINGS-Continued. 



4. Henry III., 1216—1272 
6. Edward I., 1272—1307 . 

6. Edward II., 1307—1327 

7. Edward III., 1327—1377' 

8. Richard II., 1377—1399 



72 
77 
82 
85 
91 



CHAPTER VILI 



1. Henry IV., 1399—1413 . 

2. Henry V., 1413—1422 . 

3. Henry VI., 1422—1461 . 



96 

98 

102 



CHAPTER VIII. 
THE HOUSE OF YOKK. 



1. Edward IV., 1461—1483 

2. Edward V., 1483—1483 ■ 

3. Richard III., 1483—1485 



108 
113 
115 



CONTENTS. 5 

CHAPTER IX. 
THE HOUSE OF TUDOE.' 

PAGE 

1. Henry VIL, 1485— 1509 116 

2. Henry VIII., 1509—1547 121 

3. Edward VI., 1547—1553 . . . . . .131 

4. Mary, 1553—1558 .134 

5. Elizabeth, 1558— 1603 . . . . . . .138 

CHAPTER X. 
THE HOUSE OF STUAET. 

1. James I., 1603—1625 149 

2. Charles I., 1625—1649 .154 

3. The Commonwealth, 1649—1660 166 

4. Charles II., 1660—1685 173 

6. James II., 1685—1688 182 



CHAPTER XI. 
THE HOUSE OF STUAET— Continued. 



1. William and Mary, 1689—1694 . . . 

2. Wmiam III., 1694 1702 

3. Anne, 1702—1714 


. 188 
. 193 
. 194 


CHAPTER XII. 




THE HOUSE OF HANOVEE. 




1. George I., 1714—1727 

2. George II,, 1727—1760 ..... 

3. George III., 1760—1820 .... 

4. George IV., 1820—1830 .... 

5. WiUiam IV., 1830—1837 .... 

6. Victoria, 1837 


. 199 

. 202 
. 209 
. 224 

. .227 
. ^ . 230 


Chapter on English Progress . . . 


. 237 


Table oe Monarchs of England 


. 273 


,, Authors oe England 


. 275 


,, Distinguished Men .... 


. 279 


Index 


. . : 281 



HISTGEY OF ENGLAND. 



CHAPTER I. 

BRITAIN UNDER THE EOMANS. 

England, called by the Eomans Britannia (wlience 
Britain), was known to the Phoenicians at a very 
remote period. They heing the great traders of the 
ancient world, visited the south-western parts of the 
country, and especially the Scilly Islands, where they 
obtained tin, whence those islands were called the 
Cassiterides, that is, tin islands. But the Phoenicians, 
anxious to secure to themselves the monopoly of this 
trade, did not communicate their knowledge of the 
country to others, but rather invented stories calcu- 
lated to deter them from sailing in the same direction. 

Britain thus remained a country unknown to other 
nations, except by name, until the year B.C. 55, when 
Julius Caesar, then engaged in the conquest of Gaul 
(France), found that his enemies were assisted in 
various ways by the inhabitants of Britain. In order 
to prevent this, and at the same time to gratify his 
own ambition to be the first to enter the unknown 
island, he invaded Britain with a large fleet, sailing 
from Port Itius, in Gaul, and landing somewhere about 
Deal. The Britons, who had been warned by their 
friends in Gaul, offered a brave resistance, killing and 
wounding many of their enemies with their darts and 
javelins. The Eomans were unable to make any pro- 
gress, and after a stay of twenty days Csesar, fearing 
the ai3proach of winter, gave up the enterprise and 
returned to Gaul. But in the following year, b.c. 54, 



HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 



[Chap. I. 



lie resolved upon a second expedition. He landed at 
the same place as before with an army of five legions, 
and being now better prepared than the previous year 
he defeated the Britons in several engagements, though 
they fought with undaunted valour under their chief, 
Cassivelaunus. Csesar even advanced to the northern 
bank of the Thames, which he crossed somewhere 
about Coway Stakes, took the fortified town of Cas- 




--t^^'-i^Tfe 



COWAT STAKE!?, 



sivelaimus, and conquered a great part of the present 
counties of Middlesex an ' Essex. The Britons feelino- 
unable to continue the contest, sued for j)eace, which 
was granted to them ; but they had to give hostages 
and promise to pay an annual tribute to their con- 
querors. Caesar now quitted the country, but as he 
left no troops or garrisons behind, the promises of sub- 
mission made by the Britons were disregarded ; and 
as C83sar was otherwise engaged in Gaul, the Britons 
were no further molested by the Eomans for nearly a 
hundred years, and Caesar's conquests produced no 
efiect upon Britain. 

Csesar himself, in his Memoirs of his Gallic wars, has 
given us a full account of these two invasions, and 
from him we receive the first authentic information 
about the inhabitants of Britain. They were a branch 
of the great Keltic family, which appears to have been 
among the first offshoots of the Aryan race, that came 
into Euro23e from the East and occupied a large portion 
of it, viz., Southern Germany, Switzerland, the north of 
Italy, a great part of Erance, parts of Spain, Belgium, 



B.C. 55— A.D. 449.] KOMAN PERIOD. 9 

and tlie British Islands. Tlie Britons had probably im- 
migrated to these islands from the coasts of Gaul and 
Belgium. Tacitus, a later historian, thinks that the 
south-western parts of Britain may have been occupied 
by settlers from Spain, while he is inclined to believe 
that the northern parts, especially Caledonia (Scotland), 
were inhabited by a people of Teutonic origin. But on 
the whole we may safely assume that the great body of 
the Britons were true Kelts. Those inhabiting Kent 
and the adjacent districts were more civilized than the 
rest, owing, no doubt, to their frequent intercourse 
with their continental kinsmen in Gaul and Belgium. 

The Britons were divided into a great number of 
tribes, all of which may be classed under two heads — 
the Gael, in the north, and the Cymri, in the south and 
south-west. Each tribe had its own chief, or king. 
The people generally lived in huts or caves, but the 
places in which the chiefs resided consisted of wooden 
huts, and were surrounded and protected by trenches 
and trunks of trees. They used to dye their skins 
with a blue colour obtained from woad, that they might 
appear more formidable to their enemies. Their chiefs, 
as in all other Keltic countries, were fond of finery, 
especially gold bracelets and collars, and wore mantles 
woven in checks, like the plaids still used in Scotland. 
They knew little of agriculture, and lived principally 
on the produce of the chase. 

The religion of the Britons, called Druidism, was an 
exceedingly well-organised system, managed and super- 
intended by Druids, their priests, who were the most 
powerful and most influential class of the nation. 
They possessed all the learning and knowledge of 
divine and human things. But as the art of writing 
was unknown to them, all knowledge was handed 
down to their disciples by'oral tradition. This body of 
priests was headed by one chief Druid, chosen by them- 
selves, and to him all owed obedience. The Druids 
alone knew and administered the laws, and those of 
Britain appear to have enjoyed a high reputation for 
learning, for many young men from Gaul and Belgium 
resorted to Britain for instruction in the mysteries of 



10 



HISTOUY OF ENGJjAND. 



[Chap, h 



Bruidism. As to tlie gods worsMpped by^tliem, little 
or nothing is known; they venerated the oak and 
mistletoe, but do not appear to have worshipped any 
images. They occasionally offered human sacrifices to 
their gods, bnt these mostly consisted of criminals who 
had been condemned to death. Many gigantic remains, 
snch as those of Stonehenge, are supposed to have been 




STONEHENGE. 



parts of Druidical temples. The island of Mona (Angle^ 
sea) was regarded as a sacred place and a sort of holy 
centre of the Druidical religion. 

During the first hundred years after Caesar's second 
expedition, Britain was visited only by peaceful traders 
from Gaul, who, no doubt, exercised a beneficial in- 
fluence on the civilization of the islanders. Eumours 
of contemplated invasions occasionally reached them, 
but nothing serious was undertaken. The mad emperor 
Caligula did indeed march out with an army of twenty 
thousand men to the coast of Gaul, to conquer, as he 
said, the ocean and Britain ; but when the army was 
ready fbr embarkation he ordered the soldiers to collect 
shells, which he called the spoils of the ocean, and 
returned to Rome, imagining himself a great conqueror. 
But three years later events occurred which led to its 
permanent occupation by the Romans. A treacherous 
Briton of the name of Bericus, who had been expelled 
by his countrymen," prevailed upon the emperor Claudius 
to undertake the conquest of Britain. Accordingly, 
in A.D. 43, four legions, under the command of Aulus 



B.C. 55— A.D. 449.] ROMAN PERIOD. 1 1 

Plautius, proceeded to Britain. Claudius himself 
followed soon after, and iiis lieutenant having been 
successful in several engagements, the emperor entered 
Camalodunum (Rochester) as conqueror, and then re- 
turned to Eome, assuming the title of Britannicus. The 
war, however, was continued for nine years, during 
which Vespasian (afterwards emperor), accompanied 
by his son Titus, commanded one legion. He is said 
to have fought thirty battles, to have taken the Isle of 
Wight and twenty towns, and to have subdued several 
British tribes. Caractacus, the chief of the Silures, 
made every effort to repel the invaders, but was over- 
come by the superior military skill of his enemies : his 
wife -and daughters fell into their hands, and his 
brothers Burrendered. In this distress, he sought the 
protection of Cartismandua, queen of the Brigantes ; but 
hoping to derive more benefit from the friendship of 
the Eomans, she violated the laws of hospitality and 
delivered him up to his enemies. Caractacus and his 
family were carried to Rome in triumph; but his 
fortitude and noble bearing filled the Eomans with 
such admiration that they allowed him to return to his 
country. 

The south-eastern part of Britain was now in the 
hands of the Eomans, and was constituted as a Eoman 
province, which was henceforth governed by imperial 
legates or lieutenants. Attempts were made to suppress 
the Druidical religion, and the cruelty, oppression, and 
extortion of the Eoman officials knew no bounds. Such 
conduct could not but rouse the indignation of the 
natives. But it was especially the tribe of the Iceni, 
who, under their patriotic queen Boadicea, widow of 
Prasutacus, fell upon the Eomans, and destroyed their 
settlements at Camalodunum (Eochester), Londinium 
(London), and Verulamium (St. Alban's). She is said 
to have slain seventy thousand enemies, including 
the Britons who had treacherously joined them. The 
Eoman legate, Suetonius Paulinus, however, soon after 
gained a desperate battle, in which eighty^ thousand 
Britons are said to have fallen. Boadicea, in despair, 
then put an end to her vwn existence. 



12 HISTOBY OF ENGLAND. [CllAP. I. 

Britain was now compelled qnietly to submit to its 
fate, and for a time the Eoman governors found it 
necessary to treat their subjects with more considera- 
tion. But this very consideration made the Britons 
only bolder, and fresh insurrections would have broken 
out had not the emperor Yespasian, a.d. 71, appointed 
the able Petilius Cerialis to the governorship of 
Britain, who succeeded in suppressing the spirit of 
revolt. Cerialis was accompanied by Julius Agricola, 
father-in-law of the historian Tacitus, who had the 
command of one legion, and in a.d. 77 succeeded 
Cerialis as governor. His administration lasted till 
A.D. 85, and during that period he not only subdued 
all England but also the south of Scotland as far as 
the Clyde and Forth, between which rivers he con- 
structed a rampart to protect England against the 
inroads of the wild and fierce Caledonians. These 
latter he defeated in a great battle at the foot of the 
Grampians. His administration was less disturbed by 
attempts at insurrection than that of any of his pre- 
decessors ; for by the prudence, fairness, and justice of 
his measures he conciliated the Britons and rendered 
the Eoman dominion endurable. He did more than 
any other governor to Eomanize the Britons by in- 
ducing them to adopt the Latin language and Latin 
institutions, and to abandon their own religion for that 
of the Eomans. Agricola moreover was the first who, 
by sending a fleet round the north of Scotland, ascer- 
tained that Britain was an island, a fact which until 
then had only been conjectured. 

When a country had once become a Eoman province, 
it lost all political independence, it ceased to have a^ 
history of its own, and we rarely hear of any occur- 
rence except fruitless attempts to recover its independ- 
ence or of attacks upon it by foreign enemies. Such 
also was the case with Britain, The wild Caledonian 
tribes of the north, fearing for their own safety, kept 
up an almost perpetual state of warfare with the Eomaii 
provincials^ This indnoed th© emperor Hadrian in 
A,T)> 120 to abandon the rampart constraoted by Agriook 
and to establish another further south, between the 



B.C. 55— A.D. 449.]" ROMAN PEEIOD. 13 

Tyne and Solway, consisting of a Iiigli wall and ditch. 
Parts of this still exist and are known under the name 
of the Picts' Wall. Bnt during a later attack of the 
Caledonians, in the reign of Antoninus Pius, the line 
of defence was again removed further north, and 
a new rampart was erected along the line of that of 
Agricola so as 'to include the south of Scotland within 
the Eoman province. The south of Scotland, however, 
remained at all times a precarious possession. 

Another enemy from whom the Eoman province of 
Britain had to suffer much were the Saxons, then 
dwelling in Holstein and about the mouth of the Elbe. 
They were bold sailors, and in their piratical expedi- 
tions during the third century plundered and devastated 
the coasts of the Eoman ^possessions in Gaul and 
Britain. In some of the British coast districts they 
even succeeded in establishing themselves permanently. 
Britain was thus exposed to very great danger on two 
sides, and this danger was increased by the appearance 
in Caledonia of two fierce tribes, the Picts and Scots, 
the latter of whom had immigrated into Scotland from 
the north of Ireland. Hence during the last period of 
the Eoman dominion in Britain we scarcely hear of 
anything else but of fearful devastations, caused on the 
one hand by the Picts and Scots, and on the other by 
Saxon pirates. At first the Eoman Government did 
all it could to protect its distant province, but the 
attacks made by Teutonic and other barbarians on 
Italy itself rendered it impossible to afford effectual 
help to the distressed Britons. While Eome was thus 
powerless to assist, Britain was occasionally governed 
by Eoman adventurers who set themselves up in the 
country as emperors, and were actually acknowledged 
by some, while others rejected them. The country 
thus fell into a state of utter confusion and anarchy, 
during which many of the Eoman officials were driven 
out of the island. At last the emperor Honorius, 
conscious of his inability to do anything in the matter, 
informed the Britons that henceforth they must rsly 
upon their own strength. This happened in a.d. 409, 
Several appeals still continued to be made to Borne foJ 



14 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. L 

assistance, but in vain. The Roman dominion in 
Britain thus came to an end, and the Britons might 
have recovered their freedom and independence had 
circumstances "been more favourable. But as it was, 
they themselves had become unwarlike and effeminate 
during the Roman dominion, and were anything but 
united among themselves, while their enemies in the 
north and east became daily more daring and dangerous. 
In addition to all this Europe was at that time 
suffering from famine and the plague. 

If we now turn our attention to the effects produced 
by the Romans on their British provincials, we cannot 
deny that they had greatly promoted the progress of 
civilization, but along with it they had also introduced 
Roman luxury and vice, and it is probable that in most 
of the towns even the Latin language was spoken, as, 
independently of the Roman garrisons, they swarmed 
with Roman traders and adventurers. Traces of such 
luxury are still extant in the remains of baths and 
splendid dwelling-houses. Roads also were made 
through various parts of the country, some of which 
can still be traced. Most of the towns which sprang 
up during the Roman dominion were either colonies, 
as, for example, Lincoln, or arose out of Roman stationary 
camps, as is the case with Chester, and all those places 
whose names end in caster, Chester, or cester, which are 
corruptions of the Latin word castra, signifying a camp. 
Agriculture also and commerce had made considerable 
progress. But with all this the natives, when forsaken 
by the Romans, were in a helpless condition, because, 
as provincials, they had not been allowed the use of 
arms. The Druidical religion had begun to die out as 
early as the time of Agricola, and in its place had 
been introduced the worship of the Roman gods, to 
whom temples, shrines, and statues were erected in the 
towns. At the same time Christianity had found many 
adherents among the Britons as well as among the 
Romans. It had probably been introduced by mission- 
aries from Asia Minor, who reached Britain through 
Gaul, as must be inferred from certain differences in 
the observances and rites from those of the Romau 



449—827.] SAXON PERIOD. 15 

cliiircli. Tlie diffusion of Christianity among the 
Britons, however, was looked upon with no good 
feelings by their rulers, and during the persecution of 
the Christians under Diocletian terrible scenes were 
enacted in Britain as elsewhere : the martyrdom of Saint 
Albanus, of Verulam, belongs to that period. Under 
Constantius, the successor of Diocletian, the Britons 
were again allowed to profess the Christian faith, and 
in the reign of Constantino, a.d. 314, British bishops 
attended the first council of Aries. After this time 
British and Eoman converts lived in peaceful harmony 
so far as their religion was concerned. In consequence 
of this agriculture and the useful arts made such 
progress that Britain, through its fertility, was regarded 
as the granary of the northern provinces of the Eoman 
empire, and British workmen and artisans were often 
employed in foreign countries to restore buildings 
which had been destroyed by invading hordes of bar- 
barians. But all this prosperity came to an end by the 
withdrawal of the Romans from Britain. 



CHAPTER II. 

PERIOD OF THE HEPTARCHY DOWN TO THE UNION OF ENGLAND 
UNDER KING EGBERT, FROM A.D. 449 TO 827. 

AAer the departure of the Roman legions, the northern 
portion of Britain was helplessly exposed to the ravages 
of the Picts and Scots, while the southern and eastern 
coasts were now, more than ever, infested by pirates 
who invaded the island no longer for the sole pur- 
pose of booty and plunder; many established them- 
selves permanently in the country, and built strong- 
holds in which they collected their booty, and from 
which they made inroads into the interior. In this 
manner a warlike German population was gradually 
formed along the eastern coast, consisting of Saxons, 
Frisians, and Angles. In these circumstances the valour 
and patriotism of individual British chiefs was of little 

B 



16 HISTORY OF ENGLAND, [Chap. 11. ' 

avail, especially as they did not heartily co-operate 
together and were often engaged in bloody fends among 
themselves. Yortigern, one of them, who had raised 
himself above the rest by his bravery and prudence, 
advised his countrymen to employ one set of their 
enemies against the other, and to invite Saxon ad- 
venturers to assist them against the Picts and Scots. 
These Saxons were to receive assignments of land for 
their services, and accordingly, in a.d. 449, Hengist 
and Horsa are said to have come across the sea with a 
number of followers, and the Isle of Thanet, near the 
mouth of the Thames, was ceded to them as the district 
in which they might establish themselves. The Britons 
now made the sad experience which many other nations 
have made, viz., that a nation which cannot defend 
itself, and relies on the protection of others, becomes in 
the end the prey of its protectors. The success which 
these first adventurers met with soon attracted other 
swarms of Saxons, Angles, Jutes, and Frisians, who 
demanded to be employed and rewarded like their 
predecessors. As Vortigern was unable to comply 
with their requests, they commenced war upon their 
own account against the Britons themselves. These 
wars, protracted for nearly one hundred and fifty years, 
gradually drove the Britons out of their own country, 
while the losses sustained by the German invaders 
were constantly repaired hy new. comers from the 
eastern coast of the German Ocean. In the southern 
and eastern parts the British tribes were gradually 
almost extirpated. Wherever the invaders succeeded 
in establishing themselves, the native population was 
for the most part annihilated or reduced to slavery, 
and all the property was seized by the conquerors. 
During that disastrous period many of the Britons fled 
to Gaul, where they gave their name to the province 
of Lower Brittany. The horrors of this internecine war 
were increased by the difference of the religion of the 
Britons and that of their German invaders, for the 
latter, being pagans, aimed as much et the extirpation 
of Christianity as at the destruction of the Keltic 
population. 



449—827.] SAXON PEBIOD. 17 

During these wars those Britons who survived the 
sword sought and found refuge among the hills of 
Wales, Cornwall, and Cumberland, while the German 
conquerors formed a number of independent kingdoms 
in the fertile plains of England. Their number is 
commonly said to have been seven, whence they are 
called by a common name, the Heptarchy, though at 
times there were eight or even nine kingdoms. They 
were established in the following chronological order : 

1. The kingdom of the Jutes, said to have been 
established in Kent, a.d. 455, by Hengist, with Cantej*- 
bury for its capital. 

2. A body of Saxons, under Ella, in 491 founded 
the kingdom of Sussex (South Saxons) at and about 
Chichester. 

3. In 516 Cerdic founded the kingdom of Wessex 
(West Saxons), with Winchester for its capital. 

4. In 526 the kingdom of Essex (East Saxons) was 
formed on the banks of the Thames, with London for 
its capital. 

5. In 547 a body of Angles under Idda occupied the 
country between the Humber and the Forth, which was 
formed into a kingdom under the name of Northumbria. 
This vast district, however, was at first divided into 
two kingdoms, viz., the Anglian Bernicia, and the Saxon 
Deira, both of which were subsequently united under 
the name of Northumbria. 

.6. In 571 Offa, the chief of another body of Angles, 
established himself in the country north-east of the 
Thames, where he formed the kingdom of East Anglia, 
with Norwich for its capital. 

7. The seventh kingdom was founded in 574 by the 
Anglian Crida, under the name of Mercia, with Lincoln 
or Leicester for its capital. 

While the German invaders, commonly called by the 
general name Anglo-Saxons, were thus establishing 
themselves in the fertile parts of Britain, those Britons 
who had taken refuge in the west made a gallant stand, 
defending themselves with the utmost heroism. Many 
a British chief is renowned in the legends referring to 
this period, but none has obtained greater fame than 



18 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. II.' 

king Arthur, the greatest hero in the Keltic legends, 
whose renown was spread all over Europe as the bravest 
defender of independence and of Christianity. 

It has already been remarked that all the German 
tribes which thus occupied the place of the Britons 
were pagans, worshipping a number of divinities and 
the principal heavenly bodies. They believed in a 
future state where, in an imaginary heaven, called 
Walhalla, the brave hoped to continue their favourite 
pursuits of war, of the chase, and of banqueting. In 
this belief they cherished a ferocious contempt of their 
own lives no less than of those of their enemies. They 
accordingly transferred to their new homes ihe religion, 
laws, customs, and institutions, of their original country 
in the north-west of Germany, and founded a number 
of kingdoms thoroughly Germanic in their constitu- 
tions. In their insular position they preserved their 
national character more pure and more free from foreign 
influences than any of the other Germanic kingdoms 
founded in the continental provinces of the Eoman 
empire. "When the wars were at an end, and when the 
Britons were almost extirpated in the parts of the 
country occupied by the invaders, the Anglo-Saxons 
lived in circumstances very favourable to the develop- 
ment of their national character. The Angles, from 
whom the country ultimately obtained the name o£ 
Anglia, or England, seem to have been more richly 
endowed by nature with those qualities which form 
the groundwork of a great nation than any of the other 
tribes. Not only were they bold, brave, and enter- 
prising, but eminently practical and docile, whence 
they soon attained in their new homes a degree of 
civilization far surpassing that of their brethren of the 
continent ; and as soon as the softening influences of 
Christianity were brought to bear upon them most 
wonderful changes were produced. 

The bitter national aversion subsisting between the 
Ano:lo-Saxons and the independent Britons in the west, 
indeed, prevented the latter from attempting to convert 
their enemies to Christianity; and their zeal for the 
propagation of the Gospel was displayed in other parts 



449—827.] ' SAXON PERIOD. 19 

of Europe, where no national hatred presented such 
insurmountable obstacles. Pope Gregory I., who was 
then zealously carrying on the missionary work among 
the pagans, met with no great difficulties among the 
Anglo-Saxons, who, in fact, looked upon the Christianity 
introduced to them by Eoman missionaries almost as a 
different religion from that of the Britons. Gregory's 
attention is said to have been directed to the Anglo- 
Saxons by the exceeding beauty of some Anglo-Saxon 
boys, who had been made prisoners of war, and were 
exhibited in Eome for sale. Accordingly, in the year 
596, the Koman abbot, St. Augustine, by order of the 
Pope, landed with about forty monks in Kent, then 
governed by king Ethelbert, who was married to 
Bertha, a Prankish princess of the house of the Mero- 
vingians. This lady, being herself a Christian, had often 
entreated the king to embrace Christianity, and her 
influence now inclined him to listen to the missionaries, 
who acted with great prudence, and succeeded in 
persuading the king. Ethelbert then alloAved himself to 
be baptized, and his example was followed by many of 
his kinsmen and subjects. At Christmas, 597, scarcely 
a year after Augustine's arrival, ten thousand Saxons 
at once became converts to Christianity. The Eoman 
monks facilitated their work by sparing, as much as 
possible, the national feelings and habits of the con- 
verts, the necessity of which had been strongly im- 
pressed upon their minds by the Pope. 

The number of Christians soon increased so much 
that it was found necessary to establish a religious 
or ecclesiastical centre, and a metropolitan church and 
abbey were accordingly founded at Canterbury, of 
which Augustine himself was appointed the first abbot. 
The Anglo-Saxon church was thus, from its very be- 
ginning, closely connected with Eome, and without 
hesitation acknowledged the primacy of the Eoman 
bishop. Augustine and his associates endeavoured in 
vain to unite the Anglo-Saxon church with that of the 
Britons, and to establish harmony between them ; but 
the latter maintained a sort of defensive attitude 
against the Christianity of their conquerors. As Can- 



20 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. 11. 

terlbmy was tlie most ancient seat of Christianity 
among the Saxons, it afterwards "became the see of tho 
archbishops of all England. York was soon after made 
the see of the archbishop for the north of the island, 
for the different kingdoms of the Heptarchy adopted 
Christianity, one after the other, without any com- 
pulsion being resorted to : example did everything. 
The customs and outward forms of paganism remained 
in many instances, and several of the superstitious 
beliefs, still lingering in country districts, may be 
traced to the pagan religion of our ancestors. A 
striking example of this consists in the fact that the 
names of the days of the week still in use are derived 
from those of pagan divinities. But the new religion, 
nevertheless, made a deep and lasting impression upon 
the nation, and several kings were so much disgusted 
with the vanities of their position as to withdraw into 
monasteries or undertake pilgrimages to Eome, where 
a separate school was founded for the education of 
young Anglo-Saxons, and supported by contributions 
from their countrymen at home. 

The Teutonic kingdoms, established in Britain, 
maintained, on the whole, their independence of one 
another, though it sometimes happened that one king 
ruled over several kingdoms, and it also occurred that 
one king, distinguished above the rest by valour and 
prudence, was regarded as the head of all the other 
kingdoms. -,For as the Britons of old had found it 
necessary to unite against their common foes, so now 
circumstances led to the same result among the Anglo- 
Saxons. The continual struggles against the Britons 
in the west, and the Picts and Scots in the north, 
rendered it absolutely necessary for the Anglo-Saxon 
States to unite for purposes of defence. Hence one of 
the kings generally exercised a sort of supremacy over 
the rest under the title of Bretwalda,, which was usually 
conferred on one of the southern kings, but others also 
were sometimes honoured with this high distinction. 
The first who obtained it was Ella, king of Sussex. It 
would, however, have been unprecedented in history 
had not jealousy and ambition produced quarrels and 



449—827.} BAXON PSRIOB. 21 

wars among so many potentates in one and tlie same 
island ; sncli at least was the case in Britain, and the 
several kingdoms had scarcely lasted two hundred and 
fifty years, when in 827 they were united mider Egbert, 
the powerful king of Wessex, who, disdaining the 
honour of a mere Bretwalda, availed himself of his 
position, and of the fact of several of the kingdoms 
having already become dependent on their more power- 
ful neighbours, for bringing the whole country under 
his own sway. It was, moreover, in his reign that the 
name of Anglia was first applied to England, exclusive 
of Wales, where the Britons still maintained their 
independence. 

YN^hen the Angles and Saxons took possession of 
Britain, a portion of the land, called folMand, was set 
apart for state purposes ; another part, called hocland 
(bookland), was assigned to the free warriors as their 
freehold property ; but a large portion was assigned to 
the chief or king as his domain. As the conquest was 
made at different times and by different chiefs, there 
was no uniformity of institutions and laws, but still 
there are some points more or less common to all the 
states of the Heptarchy. Everywhere one class of the 
population was reduced to a state of absolute slavery 
under the name of theoiv, esne, or thrall ; they consisted 
of conquered Britons and such Germans as had for- 
feited their liberty by crime. The free population was 
divided into cearls or cem^ls, who constituted the great 
body of the people, and thanes, who formed a sort of 
nobility or gentry, and whose rank was determined by 
the amount of their landed property. A second and 
higher class of nobles, bearing the title of eorl or earl^ 
enjoyed their privileges by the right of birth. The 
Anglo-Saxon kings, all of whom traced their origin to 
their supreme god Wo dan, did not succeed to their 
thrones by the right of primogeniture, but were always 
elected from auiong the members of the royal family ; 
neither did they possess absolute power, being limited 
in its exercise by the national assembly or council of 
the wise, called the Witenagemot. This council was 
essentially aristocratic, and was convened and presided 



22 HISTOKY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. II. 

over by the king himself; its members consisted of 
earls, bishops, and abbots, to whom sometimes thanes 
also were added. They made the laws and voted the 
taxes, and the king was bound to listen to their advice 
in making war and peace, as well as in all other 
government matters. -They further formed a high 
court of justice, before which appeals might be brought 
against the decisions of inferior courts. 

The whole country was divided into shires or 
counties — hundreds — tytlies — and townships, and in 
this arrangement ample scope was left for every com- 
munity, both large and small, to exercise that self- 
government which still forms so characteristic a feature 
of the English nation. Each county was presided over 
by an officer called scirgerifa, that is, shire-reef or 
sheriff. We cannot here enter into any detailed descrip- 
tion of the constitutions of the several communities, 
but may observe in general that our most cherished 
institutions, to which this country owes its greatness 
and its glory, are legacies of the wisdom of our Anglo- 
Saxon ancestors. Ethelbert of Kent, under whom 
Christianitj^ was introduced, was the first who published 
in the year 600 a code of laws which, though composed 
in Latin, were entirely based upon the national in- 
stitutions of the Saxons. One hundred years later Ina, 
of Wessex, caused a more complete code to be framed, 
in which the Britons were placed under the protection 
of the state, and which clearly aimed at a friendly 
union of the conquerors and the conquered. 

Owing to the perpetual wars, agriculture at first 
made but slow progress among the Anglo-Saxons, and 
extensive forests were for a long time the abode of 
wild beasts and of robbers. The breeding of cattle, 
especially swine, was the occupation next in importance ; 
and the produce of these two appear on the whole to 
have been sufficient for the support of the people, for 
during this period famine occurred more rarely in 
England than on the continent. Industry and trade 
flourished to some extent in the towns, and London is 
called a great commercial centre of many nations, who 
visited it both by land and by sea. 



SOO— 1066.] 



ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD. 



23 



CHAPTEE III. 

fEOM a?HE ACCESSION OF EGBERT, THE FOUNDER OF THE 

UNION OF ENGLAND, TO THE NORMAN CONQUEST, 

FROM 800 TO 1066. 



Egbert . . 


. 800-836 


Edwy. . . . 


955-959 


EthelwTilf . . 


. . 836-858 


Edgar . . . 


959-975 


Ethelbald . . 


. . 858-860 


Edward the Martyr 


975-978 


Ethelbert . . 


. . 860-866 


Ethelred II. . . 


978-1016 


Ethelred . . 


. 866-871 


Edmund Ironside 


1016 


Alfred the Great 


.. 871-901 


Canute the Great 


1016-1035 


Edward the Eldei 


• . 901-924 


Harold . 


1035-1039 


Athelstane 


. 924-940 


Hardicanute . 


1039-1042 


Edmund . 


, 940-946 


Edward the Confessor 1042-1066 


Edred . . . . 


. 946-955 1 


Harold II. . . . 


1066 



The honour of having united the several Anglo-Saxon 
kingdoms under one sceptre belongs to Egbert, who was 
elected in the year 800 to the throne of We s sex, which 
had gradually become the most powerful kingdom of 
the Heptarchy. He had previously spent thirteen 
years in the dominion of Charlemagne, during which 
time he may have seen the advantages of uniting 
several tribes under one head. He was a man of great 
natural ability ; and when in 809 the western Britons 
once more rose against him, he succeeded in uniting 
Cornwall with Wessex, and in compelling Wales to 
keep peace, at least for a time. Mercia, the principal 
state of the Angles, was then governed by the upstart 
Beornwulf, but it was in a declining condition, and 
when Beornwulf presumptuously attacked Wessex he 
was killed in battle, and Egbert wrested from Mercia 
the kingdoms of Kent and Sussex. The East Angles 
also revolted from Mercia and placed themselves under 
the protection of Egbert. A few years later even 
Northumbria submitted to him, and thus the whole of 
the seven kingdoms gradually acknowledged the su- 
premacy of Wessex. The kings themselves were not 
always deposed, but became the vassals and tributaries 
of Egbert, as was the case with Kent, Sussex, and 
Mercia. The union of the small Anglo-Saxon kingdoms 



24 HISTOBY OF ENGLAND, [Chap. Hi 

under one energetic cliief had become a matter of 
necessity, as the country began to be more and more 
threatened by a new enemy, commonly called North- 
men (Normans) or Danes. They were Teutons, joartly 
from Scandinavia and partly from the north-west of 
Germany, and accordingly be]onged to the same race 
as the Anglo-Saxons themselves, bnt they were pagans, 
and as ferocious, if not more so, as the Angles and Saxons 
themselves had been. Egbert had scarcety been king of 
all England for six years, when they commenced a series 
of ravaging attacks on various parts, in which they seem 
to have been assisted by the Britons ; and Egbert 
perceiving this, chastised them in a great battle, and 
ordered all the Welsh living in his dominions to quit 
them in the space of six months. The year after this 
victory Egbert died, in 836, having founded a kingdom 
more extensive and more powerful than any that had 
existed in these islands ; and had it not been for the 
disturbances caused by the inroads of the Danes or 
Normans, the country might now have entered u]3on 
a period of great progress and prosperity. It is com- 
monly believed that after the conquest of Mercia, 
Egbert, in deference to the predominant race of the 
Angles, assumed the title of king of Anglia ; but others 
think that this title did not come into use until the 
reign of Edmund, the son of Alfred the Great. 

Egbert was succeeded by his eldest son, Ethelv/ulf, 
who had to fight against the Danish invaders almost 
without interru|)tion throughout his reign. He had 
received a monastic education, which had inspired him 
with the love of peace and tranquillity, strongly con- 
trasting with the energy and activity of his father. 
His great desire was to undertake a pilgrimage to 
Rome, but the necessity of defending his kingdom pre- 
vented it. His only daughter was married to the 
vassal king of Mercia, and the youngest of his five sons 
was Alfred, who afterwards became king of England, 
and obtained the surname of the Great. Ethel wulf 
seems to have been strongly impressed with the honour 
and dignity conferred by the Pope on Charlemagne, and 
with a view to obtain the papal sanction and consecra- 



800—1066.] - ANGLO-SAXON PEBIOD. 25 

tion for Ms own liouse, lie sent, in 853, his son Alfred, 
then only five years old, with a numerous retinue to 
Eome, where Pope Leo lY. anointed and crowned him, 
A few years later Ethelwlilf himself, accompanied by 
Alfred, spent a whole year at Eome, displaying the 
most lavish liberality towards the clergy, rebuilding 
the school of the Saxons, which had been destroj^ed 
by fire, and promising an annual donation, which 
subsequently the popes claimed as a tribute^ under 
the name of Peter's pence. As a ruler Ethelwulf was 
feeble, and almost undid the work of his father. For 
he divided his kingdom with his eldest son Athelstane, 
to whom he gave Essex, Kent, and Sussex; but the 
young man died before his father, and the latter, shortly 
before his death, which took place in 858, again divided 
his kingdom between his next two sons, Ethelbald and 
Ethelbert, the former receiving the western X3art, and 
Ethelbert Kent and the eastern portions. 

Ethelbald reigned only two years, and his early death 
deprived the country of a man who might have been 
of great service during the struggles that were ap- 
proaching, 

Ethelbeii; now again united the kingdom, and governed 
it with a firm hand until his death in 866. He was 
succeeded by Ethelred, whose short reign till 871 was 
an uninterrupted series of unfortunate Avars with the 
Danes, who in 860 had renewed their inroads and 
gained a permanent footing in England. They plun- 
dered and ravaged the country in a fearful manner, 
and being pagans they raged with unexampled cruelty 
against churches and monasteries. East Anglia fell 
entirely into their hands, and its king, Edmund, suffered 
at their hands the death of a martyr. Ethelred had to 
fight many a bloody battle against them, in which ho 
v/as bravely assisted by his brother Alfred, who suc- 
ceeded him on the throne in 871 and reigned till 901. 

This king, who deserves the name of the Great, 
perhaps more than any man ever entrusted with the 
government of a nation, was the youngest of Ethel- 
wulf 's sons, and the grandson of Egbert. At the time 
of his accession he was only twenty-two years old, but 



26 HISTORY OP ENGLAND. [Chap. III. 

he had borne the title of king ever since his anointment 
by the Pope, and during the reign of his elder brothers 
he had always ranked as the second person in the king- 
dom. His intellectual superiority and the valour he 
had displayed against the Danes had won for him the 
affection of all his subjects. The career he now entered 
upon and the great qualities he unfolded have secured 
to him a fame and a reputation unequalled by any 
other ruler. The gratitude of posterity has known no 
bounds, and has looked upon him as the founder of 
everything that is good and noble in the institutions 
of the country, though it is now well known that some 
of them had existed long before his time, and others 
originated many years after his death. But he is, and 
always will be, regarded as the great and good king 
Alfred, for he delivered his country from the hated 
yoke of foreign pagans, restored and maintained the 
laws and institutions of his ancestors, and diffused 
throughout his dominions a love of letters and learning. 
Alfred had received a most careful education from 
his mother Osburga. Before his twentieth year he was 
seized by a malady, the nature of which is not precisely 
known, but which throughout his life never entirely 
left him. The strength of his will and of his mind 
however overcame all physical defects. At the time of 
his accession, the Danes, strengthened by fresh hosts, 
advanced as far as Wilton ; and although routed at first 
by Alfred and his few followers, they rallied and gained 
the day. Eight great battles were fought during the 
first year of his reign, with great losses to both sides, 
until at last the Danes agreed to evacuate the country 
with the exception of Mercia. But notwithstanding 
this arrangement, they continued to murder, ravage, 
and pillage the country in all directions. Soon all 
Northumbria fell into their hands, and expeditions were 
undertaken even as far as the valley of the Clyde, 
where many Danes settled, exchanging the sword for 
tho^ plough. In the south they carried on their depre- 
dations from the castles of Wareham and Exeter, but 
there Alfred besieged them and caused a fleet to be 
built to prevent the landing of fresh adventurers. Soon 



800—1066.] 



ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD. 



27 



after Wessex itself was attacked and plundered, and 
Alfred himself was reduced to tlie greatest straits. 
But he did not lose heart : accompanied by a few 
nobles and warriors he spent several months during 
the winter in a marshy island in Somersetshire, where 
with the greatest difficulty he procured the mere ne- 
cessaries of life. He found, it is said, a place of safety 
in the hut of a cowherd, and one clay when he was 




ALFRED IN THE COWHERD'S HDT. 

sitting by the fire, making arrows for his bow, the wife 
of the herdsman, not knowing who he was, ordered 
him to attend to the cakes she happened to be making. 
Alfred, though sitting close by the fire, allowed the 
cakes to burn, and meekly bore the reproof for his 
inattention. Another legend relates that one day, 
when he was sitting in a hut reading some book, a 
beggar knocked at the door and received from the king 
one half of his last loaf of bread, whereupon St. Cuthbert 
appeared to him in a vision, and promised that he should 
be restored to his kingdom. At length with the aid of 
his Somerset nobles he constructed a fort, from which 
he sallied forth against the enemy, and kept up com- 
munication with his friends. He is said once to have 
entered the camp of the enemy in the disguise of a 



28 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. III. 

minstrel, and thus to have obtained accurate infor- 
mation as to their numbers and plans. A course of 
action was then agreed upon between him and his 
faithful adherents, and an attack was made u]3on the 
Danes, who were driven back to their strongholds, 
where they were pursued and besieged by Alfred. 
After a fortnight they promised to evacuate the country, 
and to give hostages, if a free dejoarture were granted. 
These terms were accepted, and Guthrum, the chief of 
the Danes, and many of his principal followers, adopted 
Christianity. Guthrum, at his baptism, received the 
name of Athelstane^ and was adopted by Alfred. These 
events occurred in the year 880, and Athelstane with- 
drew to East Anglia, over which, together with % por- 
tion of Mercia, he ruled as a vassal king, recognising 
Alfred as his sovereign. A treaty was concluded be- 
tween the sovereign and his vassal, regulating the 
frontiers and other matters. Christianity now became 
the recognised religion in both kingdoms, and the 
foreigners who, owing to the weakness of Alfred's 
predecessors, could not be expelled from the island, 
were united with the Saxons by one religion and one 
law. 

The Danes, however, found it difficult to give up 
their former habits, and not only did they occasionally 
molest neighbouring districts, but gave assistance to 
some Normans who endeavoured to establish themselves 
in the country north of the Thames. Such conduct 
obliged Alfred, in 884, again to take up arms and 
restore the feudal relation between him and Athel- 
stane, who died in 890. His successor renewed the 
treaty with Alfred. We must not forget that Bernicia 
and Northumbria also continued to be governed by 
Danes, but the latter country was recovered by Alfred 
in the year 894, on the death of its king Guthred. 

For a series of years England now remained undis- 
turbed, and great as Alfred's activity had been in the 
defence of his country, it was equally great after his 
final victory over the Danes, for he now displayed the 
greatest intelligence and care in restoring what had 
been destroyed, and in improving what had been saved ; 



3OO-,1066.] ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD, 29 

ruined castles were rebuilt, towns and roads were re- 
paired, and new ones built, tlie riglits of the clergy 
were regulated and protected, and the city of London, 
which had almosj: been ruined during the wars with 
the Danes, and by frequent fires, was rebuilt. But 
what was more important than all this was the creation 
cf a powerful navy to protect the coasts of his dominions 
— in short, Alfred did all he could to improve the con- 
dition of his people — by restoring law and order, and 
protecting the people against all arbitrary encroach- 
ments. His success in these works of organisation was 
so great that the country, which during the late wars 
had been thrown into fearful disorder, is said to have 
become in a few years the safest and best organised in 
all Europe. Christianity had already made a deep im- 
pression upon the Anglo-Saxons, and many of the 
Saxon clergy were noble rivals of those of Eome. But 
during the Danish wars learning had fallen so low that 
south of the Thames no one could be found capable 
of translating a Latin book. To remedy this state of 
things, the king gathered around him the most dis- 
tinguished men from foreign countries, as well as from 
Biercia and other parts of England, where learning had 
not become quite extinct. In his thirty-sixth year he 
himself began the study of Latin, and ever after his 
favourite occupation was to translate works from that 
language into Anglo-Saxon, such as the "Consolations 
of Philosophy," by Boethius ; the " Ecclesiastical His- 
tory " of the Yenerable Bede, and the historical work of 
Orosius. He kept up an extensive connection v/ith 
various Christian churches, and especially with Eome, 
where he secured great privileges for the school of the 
Saxons. The education of his subjects was to him a 
matter of as deep concern as that of his o^vn children. 
The sons of the nobility were ordered to be instructed 
in writing, Anglo-Saxon, and Latin, before they were 
allowed to engage in war and the chase, and the king 
devoted a portion of his own revenues to the support of 
the school. 

All this was accomplished by Alfred in a short 
period by prudently husbanding his time and means. 



80 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. III. 

To measure his time, he used six lamps, each of which 
"burned for four hours, which enabled him to divide the 
day into equal portions : one for sleep and bodily 
exercise, one for business of itate, and one for study and 
devotions. In like manner he divided his revenues 
into two parts ; one being devoted to the necessities of 
the state, and the other to churches, monasteries, and 
schools. 

While he was engaged in these quiet and beneficent 
■works, his reign was once more disturbed, in 893, by 
fresh invasions of Danes. The war in which he was 
thus involved was continued during four j^ears ; but in 
the end Alfred succeeded in finally driving them off 
with great loss. The last years of his reign appear to 
have passed away in peace, for no further events are 
recorded, though he, no doubt, continued his beneficent 
activity until his death, which occurred in October, 901. 
This reign may be briefly characterized as that of a 
sage and of a hero. 

After Alfred's death the votes of the Witenagemot 
assigned the succession to his son Edward, surnamed 
the Elder, who had already distinguished himself in 
the Danish wars. This election was indeed opposed by 
the sons of his uncle Ethelred, but Edward not only 
maintained his position, but by his energy succeeded in 
securing the whole of his father's kingdom, although 
the Northumbrians, availing themselves of the repeated 
inroads of the Danes, rose in rebellion against him. 
The struggles against the Danes continually engaged 
nearly his whole attention, but at the same time he did 
all he could to secure the coasts by building strong- 
holds; he raised the importance of the towns, and 
maintained rigorous strictness in the administration of 
the law. His nearly uninterrupted warlike occupations, 
as well as probably his own inclinations, prevented 
his doing much for the advancement of intellectual 
culture among his people. He died at Farrendon, in 
Mercia, in 924. His legitimate children being still 
young at the time of his death, he recommended his 
natural son Athelstane as his successor. He was accepted 
by the Witenagemot and reigned till 940. Although 



800—1066.] ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD. 31 

the Danes in Nortlmmbria, in order to secure their in- 
dependence, allied themselves with the Scots, with 
roving bands of pirates, and the Britons in Wales and 
Ireland, he nevertheless conquered them all in the 
famous battle of Brunanburg in Northumbria. England 
thus obtained under him a power unequalled bj^ that 
of any of his predecessors, and his renown was widely 
spread among continental nations. In the adminis- 
tration of the internal affairs of his kingdom he pro- 
moted order and commerce, by raising every merchant 
who had made two voyages to the rank of a thane. 

As Athelstane left no children, Edmund the Elder, the 
eldest surviving son of Edward, who had already given 
signal proofs of personal valour, was readily recognised 
by the Witenagemot as the lawful successor. At the 
very beginning of his reign he had to crush an insur- 
rection of the Danes in the north. He took Nortlmm- 
bria from the Britons and gave it to king Malcolm of 
Scotland, who had to do homage to hiui, and promise to 
protect the north of England against the Danes. Un- 
fortunately Edmund's career was cut short by an act of 
violence. A man of the name of Leolf, who had been 
banished for a crime, made his way into the king's 
dining-hall and murdered him, in the year 946. 

As Edmund's children were still young the Witen- 
agemot conferred the crown on his brother Edred, who 
received the oath of allegiance not only from his 
English subjects, but even from the princes of Wales 
and the kings of Cumberland and Scotland. The 
Northumbrians had to be forced, and their country be- 
tween York and the Lothians was given to Osulph, in 
whose family the government remained until the Nor- 
man conquest. During the last years of his reign, 
Edred spent all his energies upon regulating and forti- 
fying the newly-recovered territory. He died in 955 
without issue. 

His reign is marked in history by the rise of eccle- 
siastical power, through the influence of the pious and 
learned, but domineering Dunstan, abbot of Glastonbury. 
This man, descended from an old West Saxon family, 
made upon his contemporaries the impression of a 

c 



32 HISTORY OF ENaLAND. [ChAp. III. 

person of srperior sanctity. His life was very anstere, 
and lie fostered a belief among tiie people that lie liad 
frequent conflicts witli tlie devil. He was skilled in all 
tlie arts of tlie time, and at the age of twenty- two he had 
"been appointed by the king abbot of Glastonbury. He 
there introduced the rules of the Benedictines, which 
soon after were adopted in most of the monasteries of 
England. In the reign of Edmund and Edred he had 
devoted himself entirely to monastic pursuits, but in 
that of Edred's successor, Edwy, his fiery zeal drove him 
into the political arena. 

Edwy, or Edwin, a son of Edmund, upon the death 
of Edred, was unanimously chosen by the Witenagemot. 
He was a young man of great beauty, but he brought 
upon himself many misfortunes by his thoughtlessness. 
Even at his coronation he became involved in a dispute 
which formed the beginning of a long protracted struggle 
of the rising power of the monastic orders against the 
state and the secular clergy. Edwy was married to the 
fair Elgiva, but owing to the near relationship between 
him and her, the marriage was considered to be con- 
trary to the laws oF the church. During the coronation 
banquet, Edwy left the hall, hastening to his beloved 
Elgiva. The nobles, oifended at his conduct, sent after 
him the abbot Dunstan, who in a most disrespectful 
manner forced the king back into the banqueting hall. 
From this moment the old secular clergy, who hated the 
Benedictines because they denied the priests the right 
to marry, sided with the young queen, who had long 
been annoyed by the ascetic severity of the monks. A 
plan was formed to overthrow the abbot and expel the 
Benedictines. The king demanded an account of all 
the treasures intrusted to the monastery of Glaston- 
bury, and Dunstan fled to Ghent in Flanders. Edwy 
closed the establishments of the Benedictines, and by 
various acts of indiscretion exasperated a large number 
of his subjects. At the instigation of Dunstan, Mercia 
and Korthumbria revolted, and after a short period of 
anarchy they proclaimed Edwy's brother Edgar king, 
making Dunstan his permanent councillor, and bishop 
of Worcester and London, Dimstan now returned to 



800—1066.] ANaLO-SAXON PERIOD. 33 

England, and tlie clergy who liad liitherto remained 
faithful to Edw}'-, under the fear of Dunstan, prevailed 
iijDon the king to divorce Elgiva. She was dragged 
out of the palace and banished to Ireland, her face 
having been cruelly disfigured with hot irons. When 
the wounds were healed, and she returned to England, 
she was seized at Gloucester, and put to death with 
fiendish tortures. Edwy himself died soon after 959 in 
the same place, but is supposed to have been murdered 
by his enemies. 

By the death of Edwy in 959 the whole kingdom 
became united under his brother Edgar, who has been 
called the most fortunate of all the Anglo-Saxon kings. 
Dunstan was at once made archbishop of Canterbury, 
and contrived to hold the reins of government in his 
own hands. It must be owned that he employed the 
power to which he had risen for the good of the coun- 
try, so far as it was compatible with the claims of the 
church and himself. Wherever it was possible he filled 
the episcopal sees with Benedictines, for whom Edgar is 
said to have founded no less than forty monasteries. 
During the first years of Edgar's reign, his name is 
scarcely ever mentioned ; but notwithstanding his licen- 
tious and dissolute mode of life, at which Dunstan cun- 
ningly connived, he enjoyed the affections of his people. 
Scandinavia had already sent forth its surplus popu- 
lation, so that now not much was to be feared from that 
quarter, and Edgar could therefore direct his attention 
more especially to those Danes who had permanently 
settled in England, in the neighbouring islands, and on 
the east coast of Ireland. For this purpose he kept up 
a large fleet, which he himself inspected annually, and 
v\^hich so completely secured his dominions that he ob- 
tained the name of the Peaceful. Still, however, his 
reign did not pass away without military undertakings. 
In one of his expeditions he subdued the Danes in 
Ireland and took Dublin : the first Anglo-Saxon con- 
quest beyond the sea. In his reign wolves are said to 
have been exterminated in England, the Britons in 
Wales being allowed to pay their annual tribute in 
vrolves' heads. It is strange to find that Edgar was not 



34 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. Ill, 

crowned king till 973, many years after his accession ; 
it may have been a contrivance of Dunstan to make 
the king feel his dependence upon the church. Two 
years after this solemnity Edgar died, in 975, leaving 
his kingdom much better organised than it had been. 
Trade and commerce also had been much improved by 
his government. 

Edgar had been married twice, and his second wife, 
Elfrida, was bent upon securing the succession to her 
own son Ethelred, who was only seven years old, but 
Dunstan induced the Witenagemot to elect Edward II., 
Edgar's son by his first wife, then a boy of thirteen. 
The Benedictines and their party supported the choice, 
while the secular clergy, siding with the widowed queen, 
attempted to expel the Benedictines and give their 
monasteries to married priests ; but the archbishop 
fought manfully for the cause he had undertaken, and 
Elfrida began to despair of her son ever succeeding to 
the throne. One evening while Edward was hunting 
in Dorsetshire, he visited his step-mother at Corfe 
Castle without attendants. While he was sitting on 
his horse and drinking a cup of mead to refresh himself, 
he was murdered, in 978, by a hired assassin, in con- 
sequence of which he was afterwards regarded by his 
clerical adherents as a martyr. 

Elfrida's son, Ethelred II., surnamed the Unready, 
was now crowned king by Dunstan, who however is 
said to have foretold that his reign would be unfortunate. 
Dunstan had him educated as if he were intended to 
become a monk, though the young king had talents of 
which something better might have been made. As 
long as Dunstan himself lived, the government was 
indeed strong enough to resist attacks from without, 
and to prevent the internal decay of the kingdom ; but 
after his death, in 988, the country felt the loss of the 
man whose strong hand had kept together the different 
elements of which the state was composed. Even 
during the first years swarms of Scandinavians began 
to infest the English coasts and to enact the same 
terrible scenes which had been witnessed many years 
before. Many of these pirates came from Normandy, 



800— 10G6.] AKGLO-SAXON PERIOD. 85 

wliose inliabitants were unable entirely to renounce 
their former piratical habits. It ought to be mentioned 
that in 911 Charles the Simple, in order to stop their 
ravages, had ceded to these Northmen, or Normans, a 
whole province of France, which received from them 
the name of Normandy. Ethelred indeed tried to 
retaliate upon Normandy, but suffered so terrible a 
defeat that only a single messenger escaped to report 
the disaster to his master. But through the mediation 
of the Pope, a peace was concluded in 991, in which 
both the Normans and Ethelred were admonished to 
turn their arms against the pagans rather than against 
one another. In the same year an attack was made 
upon England by the king of Norway, in which he was 
so successful that Ethelred, on the advice of his clerical 
councillors, promised to pay the enemy ten thousand 
pounds of silver, and to suppl}^ them with provisions 
as long as they should stay in the island, on condition 
of their ceasing to devastate the districts they were 
occupjdng. The tribute thus paid to the Danes in this 
humiliating peace gave rise to a tax on the laity of 
England which, under the name of Danegelt, or Dane- 
money, continued to be levied for several ' centuries. 
But the Danes did not seem willing to leave the coun- 
try, and even a few years later the united kings, Sweyn 
of Denmark, and Olav Trigvason, thinking themselves 
sufficiently powerful to conquer all England, appeared 
with their fleets off the coasts, which they ravaged 
in a most barbarous manner. They, too, were bought 
off by sixteen thousand pounds of silver ; and in a sub- 
sequent attack, in the year 1000, they even received 
twenty-four thousand pounds. The excellent insti- 
tutions made by Ethelred's predecessors were partly 
neglected by him, and were partly insufficient for the 
exigencies of the time. Ethelred now tried to secure 
himself by forming connections with the Normans in 
France, and by marrying Emma, daughter of Eichard I. 
of Normandy. The Danes settled in England, looking 
with suspicion and fear on this new connection, con- 
spired to murder Ethelred and the leading men of his 
court. Ethelred hearing of the plot gave secret orders 



o 



6 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. III. 



to put to death, on an ap|)ointecl day, all the Danes 
settled in tlie towns. This foolish and cruel order was 
executed on the 13th of Novemher, 1002. But it seems 
not to have been extended to Northumberland, East 
Anglia, and the towns of Mercia, for we afterwards still 
meet with great numbers of Danes in those parts. 

When the news of this massacre reached Sweyn, 
whose own sister had been murdered, he made a solemn 
vow to make himself master of England. For several 
years he devastated the coast districts, until in 1006 
he consented to accept thirty-six thousand pounds of 
silver, promising to observe peace, which promise, 
hoAvever, he never intended to keep. The unspeakable 
distress which the country was now suffering at last 
roused the government to make some effort for its 
defence, and by means of a new tax, called ship-money, 
a fleet was built larger than any that England had yet 
seen. But it was all of no avail. The Danes continued 
their ravages, and while the English, disunited among 
themselves, were unable to offer any effective resistance, 
the Witenagemot once more offered to purchase peace 
for the enormous sum of forty-eight thousand pounds 
of silver. While this money was being collected, the 
Danes continued their ravages, and Sweyn, hearing of 
the success of his warriors in England, now resolved 
in person to make good his vow. In 1013 he landed 
with his sons Canute and Olav in the Humber, and as 
he advanced all the country submitted to him. He 
then proceeded southward, and the cruelties and de- 
vastations which he allowed his soldiers to indul2:e in 
seem to have surpassed everything that had yet been 
experienced in this much-tortured countr}^. The 
humiliation of the English had reached the lowest 
point, and it became a common saying that one Dane 
was a match for ten Saxons. Every one felt that there 
was no other way of safety except in submission to the 
invaders. 

Ethelred, now abandoned by his subjects, fled to 
Eichard II. of K"ormandy, who received him kindly, 
though Ethelred had very often ill-used his wife Emma, 
Kichard's sister. Soon after his arrival at Eouen, 



goo— 1066.] ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD, S7 

Ethelred received the news of Sweyn's death, which 
opened the way for his return to England, where, in 
1014, he was enthusiastically received. A war nov/ 
broke out between him and Canute, the son of Sweyn ; 
but the latter finding that the most powerful of Saxon 
nobles had determined to support Ethelred, Canute re- 
turned to his own country and engaged in other 
enterprises. 

But the period of peace which now seemed in store 
for England Avas but of short duration, for the Danes 
in Northumbria called back Canute, and as Edric, ono 
of the most powerful English nobles, joined him, Ethel- 
red in despair dismissed the army which his brave son 
Edmund, surnamed Ironside, had assembled, and shut 
himself up in London, where he died in 1016, after a 
long and most unhappy reign. 

The Witenagemot assembled in London remained 
faithful to Ethelred's son Edmund, but most of the 
nobles and ecclesiastical dignitaries, ready to side with 
any ruler that might secure to them their possessions, 
joined Canute. Edmund fought several times and suc- 
cessfully against the Lanes, but after the loss of one 
great battle, the chiefs of the two nations induced their 
kings to come to an understanding, in which the north 
of England was ceded to Canute, and the south re- 
mained to Edmund. Scarcely had this division of the 
kingdom been made, when Edmund, in November, 1016, 
was assassinated, probably at the instigation of the 
treacherous Edric. 

Under the last Saxon kings, whose reign now cam© 
to an end for a time, the court had become degenerated, 
and had displayed so much foolish vanity, licentious- 
ness, and wickedness, as to draw upon itself the con- 
tempt of the nation. No wonder, therefore, that Canute 
was at once declared king of all England by tho 
cowardly and selfish nobles. Edmund's children, who 
took refuge with king Stephen of Hungary, were set 
aside, and Canute took and received the usual oath of 
allegiance, and was crowned in London. He first en- 
deavoured to get rid of all the friends and relations of 
the late king, and those who did not make their escape 



S8 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. IIL 

were put to death or sent into exile. In order to secure 
tlie support of Normandy, where the widowed Emma 
was residing with her brother, he offered her his hand, 
promising the succession in England to the children 
who might be the result of the union. The marriage 
took place in 1017. But being still doubtful of the 
fidelity of the Saxon chiefs, especially the faithless 
Edric, he had many of them put to death, and squan- 
dered their property in rewarding his Danish followers. 
When at length he felt safe in" his dominions, he sent 
the greater portion of his fleet to Denmark, which 
henceforth he governed conjointly with England. 
V His conduct now became quite altered, for he seems 
at last to have discovered the means by which alone his 
power could be permanently established. He vigorously 
promoted the interests of Christianity in Denmark, he 
placed the Danes and Saxons in England on a footing 
of equality, he bestowed especial care upon the admi- 
nistration of justice, and raised the character of the 
clergy by connecting them more closely with the order 
of the Benedictines and the Papal see, to which he 
again paid the long-forgotten Peter^s pence. By these 
and similar means he effectuallj^ won the affection of 
the Anglo-Saxons, who had already ceased to look upon 
him as a foreigner. In short, he felt so secure that he 
could divide his time between Denmark and England. 
In 1026 he undertook a pilgrimage to Eonie, where he 
Avas present at the coronation of Conrad II., emperor of 
Germany. He remained there for some time, during 
which he secured for his subjects several privileges. 
After this Canute returned to Denmark. He had always 
been ambitions to unite with his kingdom the crown of 
Norway, and having hitherto been unable to gain this 
end, he now effected it by bribing the nobles of Norway, 
who proclaimed him king in 1028. But he left this 
new country to be governed by his natural son Sweyn. 

In the meantime an ill feeling broke out between 
Canute and the duke of Normandy, who wished to 
secure the English throne to the sons of Emma by 
Ethelred. Canute averted the threatening danger by 
making certain concessions to the Saxon princes. 



800—1066.] ANGJ-LO-SAXON PERIOD. 39 

Towards the end of his life he had the further satis- 
faction of receiving the submission of the kingdoms of 
Scotland and Cumberland. He died in November, 1035, 
and was buried at Winchester. He had been one of the 
greatest and most powerful rulers of northern Europe, 
but his fame is tarnished by excessive ambition, and 
by the cruelty with which he treated his enemies at the 
commencement of his reign. England had become a 
province of Denmark, and during Canute's reign the 
great Saxon families had been more or less broken up 
and destroyed. 

Canute's only son by Emma, Hardicanute, had been 
entrusted by his father with the government of Den- 
mark, Sweyn was king of Norway, and his third son, 
Harold, for whom no provision seems to have been 
made, was more popular with the Danes in England 
than Hardicanute, and was elected by the chiefs king 
of Mercia and Northumbria. At a meeting of the West 
Saxon Witenagemot, the country south of the Thames 
was given to Hardicanute, but he had first to secure 
the kingdom of Denmark, which was invaded by the 
Norwegians, after they had expelled Sweyn. Emma 
made a useless attempt to secure the throne of England 
to her sons by Ethelred. But the elder of them, Edward, 
afterwards called the Confessor, made himself unpopular 
through his Norman followers, and being a man with- 
out much energy he soon gave up his claims ; the 
younger, Alfred, was treacherously seized by earl God- 
win ; he had his eyes put out, and died soon after in 
1036. Upon this Harold was recognised as the sole 
king, but his short reign passed away without any 
important event, except that the Britons of Wales 
took up arms against England and were unusually 
successful. 

At last Hardicanute, after securing his rule in Den- 
mark, returned to England; but while waiting at 
Bruges for a favourable opportunity the news reached 
him that Harold had suddenly died of apoplexy at 
Oxford, in March, 1039. Hardicanute therefore was 
looked upon by all parties as having the best claims 
to the throne of England, which was now again to be 



40 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. IIL 

united to tlie crown of Denmark. His mother, Emma, 
now took fearful vengeance on lier former opponents. 
Many of the most distinguished men were put to death. 
Harold's body was dragged from its tomb and thrown 
into the Thames. A bitter animosity w^as thus fostered 
between the Danes and Saxons, and Hardicanute did 
not fulfil the expectations which had been entertained 
of him. He laid a heavy tax on the English to reward 
the Danes who had brought him back to England, and 
the Danes treated the Saxons with a haughtiness and 
insolence as if they had been their slaves. Towards 
monasteries which had already very large possessions, 
both Canute and his mother displayed the greatest 
liberality. Edward (the Confessor), who seemed quite 
harmless, was invited to come from Normandy and 
live at the court of England in a manner suitable to 
his rank. Hardicanute, during the last years of his 
reign, gave himself up to licentiousness and debauchery. 
He died of apoplexy during a banquet in June, 1042. 

As Hardicanute left no issue, the Danish dynasty in 
England came to an end, and the legitimate heir of the 
English crown, Edward, was proclaimed king. Amid 
his monastic pursuits he had long since renounced all 
worldly ambition, and he accepted the crov/n only with 
reluctance at the pressing request of the powerful earl 
Godwin, who hoped to rule the country under a king 
who seemed to be wanting in streng-th and energy. 
In order to secure this, Godwin induced him to marry 
his daughter Editha; but the J^oung king, with his 
monkish notions, did not treat her as his wife, whence 
he was called the Confessor, which means the Saint. 
The sons of Godwin obtained influential positions 
and played into the hands of their father. The new 
government, however, soon became joopular, as the 
Danish influence in the affairs of the country was sup- 
pressed, and the Danegelt was abolished. At the same 
time the king offended the national feeling of the 
Anglo-Saxons by showing much partiality for the 
Normans, among whom he had spent his early years, 
and a dislike towards the somewhat rude and coarse 
manners of his Anglo-Saxon subjects. The Normans 



800— 106G.] ANGLO-SAXON PEBIOT>. 41 

were alwaj^s more inclined to sliow complete sub- 
mission to tlie Papal See tlian the Anglo-Saxons, wlio 
had all along striven to keep their church more or less 
independent of Eome. Edward, sympathising Avith the 
Normans, filled the throne of Canterbury and several 
other episcopal sees with Normans. 

Earl Godwin now put himself at the head of those hos- 
tile to these measures, but he had to go into exile. When, 
however, he threatened to attack London, and its citizens 
were ready to receive him as a friend, Stigand, bishop of 
Winchester, brought about an understanding, in which 
the king had to promise to dismiss his Norman followers, 
both lay and clerical. The national feeling thus gained 
a decided victory; and when, after Godwin's death, 
his son Harold succeeded to his place, the king showed 
an honest desire to secure the English throne to its 
natural heirs. Amid the applause of the people the 
king recalled prince Edward, the son of Edmund Iron- 
side, from Hungary, who, however, died soon after his 
arrival in London, leaving an only son, Edgar Atheling. 
Harold, earl Godwin's son, displayed great energy in 
the administration of the kingdom. Macbeth, a power- 
ful Scottish chief, had usurped the kingdom of Scotland, 
murdered the legitimate king Duncan, and driven his 
son, Malcolm Kenmore, into England. Si ward, duke 
of Northumberland, was sent by the king of England 
into Scotland to chastise the usurper. The legitimate 
king Malcolm was restored, and Scotland became a 
vassal kingdom of England. Harold was repeatedly 
successful in defeating the rebellious Britons of Wales, 
but somewhat later he brought himself, as well as the 
kingdom, into dangerous perplexities; for having, 
during a shipwreck, fallen into the hands of a French 
count, he was ransomed by William, duke of Normandy, 
on a solemn promise that after the death of Edward 
the Confessor Harold would assist him in obtaining the 
throne of England. Edward died the very year after, 
1066, having shortly before, at the request of his 
barons, named Harold, his brother-in-law, as his suc- 
cessor. Edward's body was buried in Westminster 
Abbey, and his memory has ever been dear to English- 



42 imxorA- of ENaLANi*^. [Oitav. hi, 

luou becauso, though ho Avas a Avoak luoiuuvh, iiiulor 
him tho Anglo -Saxon oonstitniion Avas rostorod, ami 
hocauso hoth Ivtovo aiul after him tho conntrv >vatJ 
rnlod by ibroii2:uor?i, 

Harold >rat5 ai onoo aohnoNvh\l;:od hv tho nobles as 
kinp: of Kng-laiid, for during tho roign of lAhvavd iho 
(.'oufos^or ho had displayed a valour and energy Avhioh 
led tho people to entertain tho greatest hopes of Imu. 
The n\0!st iutlnential among the eleetors, moreover, 
Avere lii$ personal friends. avIio hurried on the eloetion. 
The only one that had any legitimate title to the 
t^ueoession ^vas F-dii-ar Atheling. the grandson of Edmund 
Ironside, Avho ho\vover "vvas too young, and obtained 
tho earldom of Oxford. The eoroi\ation was perlbrmed 
by the arehbishop of York, as Ji^tigand, Avho had been 
raised to the arehbishopric of Canterbury, had not yet 
obtained the sanetion of the Pope. Harold at oneo 
displayed the greatest vigour and energy to secure his 
position and the good of the eountry, and no part of 
the adnunistration was negleeted. He had not loug 
enjoyed his new dignity when he received the intelli- 
genee that duke AYilliam of Kormandy Avas con- 
templating an invasion of England, which w*as said to 
be sau'.Mioned by the Tope as a war against the per- 
jured usurper. It is further stated that tho I'ope 
took this step especially at the instigation of Hiidebrand 
(afterwards Gregory A'II.\ who by this means hoped 
to secure to the papacy a greater intlnence upon 
England. 

Harold negleeted no means to meet the emergency, 
but as the enemy did not appear at once, he under- 
took an expedition against the nobles in the north, 
who had invited the ZSorwegians. and had promised 
their king the northern half of England. Harold, 
however, defeated them in a great battle. ANilliam. 
l>eforc embarking on his undertaking, tried every means 
to gain his object without having recourse to arms. 
Harold I'eplied by expelling all the Xormans residing 
in his dominions. \Villiam now determined to make 
good his claims to England by force of arms. He had 
o-reat ditlicultv in persuadino- his friends, and manv 



P/,rj—]f)(i(;,-] 



ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD. 



43 



rofuBcd to join him, Ltit nevertholfss severi hundred 
nhipH were got roady, arjd many knights and morconariefi 
wore attracted from i ranco and other countrios by pro- 
rriiBOS of rich rewards. In the month of August, 1006, 
liis fle/j:t aesemhled at St. Yalery with sixty thousand 
warriors. On tPie 20th of Sej^tomher one portion of 
the fleet landed at Pevensoy and the other at Hastings. 
Harold on hearing this instantly returned from the 
north to London with his mercenari^ls, hut found it 
iraxjossihle to hring together a sufficient army in go 
short a time, But ho nevertheless rejected all proposals 
of a division of the country hetween himself and William. 
On the 14tli of October the Normans advanced to 
the attack, and for a time victory seemed to he on 
Harold's side, hut William's valour and courage suc- 
ceeded in staying the flight of his men: the contest 
was resumed with fresh vigour, and the defeat of the 
Anglo-Saxon.^ was soon decided. Harold and two of his 
hrothers fell fighting bravely round the standard of 

-r ' 1 -1 (' > ^ 1 . i . ! , /! 1 ;i . i' c; , ,, 1 . , J. L , -.,..- I 

J , ; ' . . ,' . ... , ....... . ....'.. . '. ,'j . j'i.L 




BATTIS OP HA.-: 

banner was jjlanted in the jjlace of that of Harold, and 
"William afterwards built on the spot a richly endowed 
abbey, called Battle Abbey. Harold left behind him 
several sons who fled to Ireland, and one daughter who 
took refuge in Denmark. Harold's body, when dis- 
covered arnoncc the slain, was buried at "Waltham 



41 HISTOKY OF ENGLAND . [Chap. UI. 

Abbey, which he himself had founded. Thus ended 
the Anglo-Saxon rule in England, and the country be- 
came a province of Normandy as it had before been of 
Denmark. 

At the time of the conquest of England by the 
Kormans, the state of intellectual culture among the 
Saxons was little, if at all, inferior to that of the French 
Normans, though the latter had undoubtedly the ad- 
vantage of greater refinement in their manners and in 
the outward signs of civilization. Agriculture appears 
to have reached about the same state of perfection as 
that which existed at the time when the Eomans 
evacuated the island. A class of free peasants continued 
to exist throughout the Anglo-Saxon period, notwith- 
standing the frequent inroads and conquests of the 
Danes ; nay, these very Danes, who were closely related 
to the Saxons in manners and language, and had be- 
come completely amalgamated with them through the 
wise laws of Alfred and Canute, formed a powerful 
element in the Germanic population, which maintained 
its character even under the rule of the Normans. 

The laws of Ina had ordered that the greater part 
of the large estates should be kept under cultivation ; 
and the Angles have the merit of having first drained 
the extensive marches of East Angiia, which thus 
became the most fertile portion of England. The 
breeding of cattle always constituted the chief employ- 
ment among the Anglo-Saxons, but horticulture does 
not seem to have been neglected. All the regulations 
respecting the administration of the towns appear to 
have been the same as those among their countrymen 
on the continent, and there are in them scarcely any 
traces of Eoman influence. The connection with Home, 
both ecclesiastical and literary, which had never 
entirely ceased since the introduction of Christianity, 
became indeed more important after the time of Egbert ; 
but the Saxon spirit of independence was ever strug- 
gling against the attempts of the papacy to establish 
its supremacy in England. The influence of Dunstan 
and the Benedictines seemed to pave the way more 
and more for this scheme, yet it could never be carried 



1066—1087.] WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. 



45 



to tlie point which it had reached in France, even at a 
very early j)®^'^^^- -^^ ^^^ reserved for the Norman 
conqnerors to draw England completely into the great 
ecclesiastical communion with Eome. 

The development of the Anglo-Saxon literature, 
which had reached its height in the reign of Alfred, 
had now come to a close : the Conquest checked its 
further growth and it died away, but in its j^lace there 
arose, under the influence of the French Normans, that 
Christian romantic poetry which forms so striking a 
feature of the middle ages. 



CHAPTER lY, 



THE EAELY NORMAN KINGS^ 



WilUam I. thej ic66-1087 

Conqueror . .j 
William 11. (Rufus) 1087—1100 



Henry I, 
Stephen . 



1100—1135 
1135—1151 



1. WILLIAM THE CONaUEROS, 1066—1087. 

The terror inspired by the news of Harold's defeat and 
death for the moment completely paralysed the energy 
of tlie Anglo-Saxons, and the vanquished fled in all 
directions. Some of the nobles assembled in London, 
however, resolved to make a stand, and Stigand, arch- 
bishop of Canterbury, at their head proclaimed Edgar 
Atheling king. "William was for some time detained 
in the south, but when at length he appeared before 
London, Stigand, with Edgar and all his noble fol- 
lowers, went to meet the conqueror, and tender their 
submission. William at first seemed to wait for some 
manifestation of the whole nation ; but on the advice 
of the clergy he hastened his coronation, which was per- 
formed on Christmas-day in Westminster Abbey. Both 
the English and Norman nobility received the new king 
with general acclamation, and he then took the cus- 
tomary oath, promising to protect the church, to observe 
the laws, and to prevent acts of violence, He also con- 



46 HISTORY OP ENGLAND. [Chap. IV. 

firmed tlie liberties of London and other cities, and left 
the Saxon nobles undisturbed in their dignities and 
estates ; but those of the nobles who had fallen in the 
war were distributed among his Norman followers. 
He also confiscated all the private property of the 
Anglo-Saxon royal family, as well as of the principal 
adherents of Harold. 

The position of the conqueror was indeed most diffi- 
cult, surrounded as he was by a people who hated and 
detested him, and were ready at any moment to rise 
against him. But still things might gradually have 
settled down in peace, had not William thought it 
necessary to spend the greater -psirt of his time in 
Normandy, leaving the administration of England in 
the hands of Normans, who by their reckless insolence 
and oppression goaded the people into rebellion. He 
left England the very year after the conquest, taking 
with him Edgar and other Saxon nobles to prevent any 
attempts at raising the legitimate heir to the throne. 
An insurrection broke out immediately afterwards, and 
William hastily returning began to treat the Saxons 
with merciless oppression. Conspiracies were also 
formed by the sons of Harold, in which the kings of 
Scotland and Denmark and Edgar Atheling took part. 
Their scheme was indeed thwarted, but when in 1069 
the Danes landed in the Humber, the garrison of York, 
consisting of 3000 Normans, was put to the sword, and 
William's dangers seemed to increase. But he again 
overcame all difficulties. His anger was now roused : 
the whole country between the Humber and the Tees 
was laid waste, and a hundred thousand human lives 
are said to have been sacrificed ; there now followed 
wholesale confiscations, by which he enriched himself 
and his followers, and many of the noblest Saxons who 
escaped from the sword took refuge in foreign countries. 
Nearly the whole of the Anglo-Saxon nobility was ex- 
terminated. All high offices of the church were filled 
with Normans, and archbishop Stigand was deposed, his 
place being filled by the learned Lombard Lanfranc. 

The Anglo-Saxons, however, did not give up all hope. 
Here ward, a brave Saxon, still believing it possible to 



1066—1087.] WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. 47 

deliver his country, fortified liimself in what was called 
the " camp of refuge," in the Isle of Ely, where he was 
joined by other Saxon nobles. But William forced them 
to surrender. The sons of Harold, Edwin and Morcar, 
were put to death, Edgar Atheling who again made his 
submission was pardoned and allowed to retire into 
Normandy, while Hereward by his bravery won the 
admiration of William and received back his estates. 

England now seemed completely subdued, but Wil- 
liam had not only to contend with the conquered people, 
but also with the turbulence and lawlessness of his own 
Normans, who even went so far as to conspire against 
their own master. The plot, however, was discovered 
and easily piit down. William's eldest son Robert, 
who had been entrusted with the administration of 
Normandy, also rose in rebellion against his father, 
and unwittingly nearly killed him : when he became 
aware of what he was about to do, he was filled with 
remorse and contrition, and was pardoned. It may be 
said that William throughout his reign never felt quite 
safe. Even during his last years the country was 
harassed sometimes by the Welsh, and once again hy a 
Danish invasion, in consequence of which the king 
found it necessary to levy the odious impost of the 
Danegelt. 

In the year 1086 the king convened a great diet at 
Sarum, at which all the freeholders of England had to 
take the oath of fealty to him, and were confirmed in 
their possessions. The means for convening this as- 
sembly was furnished by a document called Domesday 
Booh, which had just then been completed, and which 
still exists in the Chapter House, in London. It con- 
tains an account of the lands in each county, the names 
of the king's direct feudatories and their sub-feudatories, 
the number of freemen, the revenues, and generally 
everything that seemed necessary to obtain a correct 
registration of the property in the country. The main 
object of this document was no doubt to ascertain how 
much revenue the royal treasury might derive from the 
country. The whole population of England seems at 
the time to have consisted of about 300,000 heads of 

D 



48 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. IV. 

families, and all together, perhaps, of two millions of 
souls. From this document we further see that Wil- 
liam introduced into England the feudal system, which 
had been established in France long before. 

During the last year of his life he was involved in a 
war Yv^ith the king of France, and while he was riding 
among the burning ruins of Mantes, his horse stumbled 
and threw him with such violence that he sustained 
a serious injury ; and feeling that his life was coming to 
a close, he tried to overcome his fears of death by most 
ample bequests and presents to monasteries and churches, 
and by setting free some of those who were still lan- 
guishing in prisons. He then regulated the affairs of 
his dominions, assigning to his son Robert, Normandy 
and his other continental possessions ; to William, his 
second son, the kingdom of England ; while the third 
son, Henry, received only a legacy of five thousand 
pounds of silver. At last the king died on the 7th of 
September, 1087, and was buried in the church of St. 
Stephen at Caen. 

William the Conqueror was one of the most powerful 
and prudent rulers of his time. Amid the greatest 
difficulties and dangers he had maintained his position 
for more than twenty years, among a people who 
cherished an invincible hatred to him and all his fol- 
lowers. This circumstance must be regarded as some 
palliation for his tyranny and cruelty towards the van- 
quished. He was passionately fond of hunting, and as 
the forests of England did not satisfy him, he created 
the " New Forest " near his palace at Winchester, for 
which churches and villages were razed to the ground. 
For the same reason his forest laws were of the severest 
kind, and v/hoever killed a stag, a deer, or even a hare, 
was punished by having his eyes put out, while any 
one might atone for killing a man by a moderate fine. 

The conquest of England produced vast changes : 
the native population was reduced to such poverty and 
wretchedness, that its very name became a term of 
reproach, while most of the Saxon nobles had perished. 
None of the few remaining were allowed to rise to any 
position of honour. French, the language of the court, 



1087—1100,] WILLIAM RUFUS. 49 

had become that of the church and the courts of law, 
and the Normans, in their insolent contempt of every- 
thing Saxon, would have liked to extinguish the national 
idiom altogether. But the great body of the people 
tenaciously clung to the tongue of their forefathers. 
In ecclesiastical matters, England became closely con- 
nected with Rome, though AVilliam never allowed 
the church to encroach upon his own prerogatives. 
The ancient Witenagemot seems to have become 
extinct, and the councils which he did assemble con- 
sisted only of his own personal friends and partizans. 
Notwithstanding all this, the conquest of England by 
the Normans cannot be regarded as an unmitigated evil, 
for it gave to the country a strong government instead 
of the feeble and degraded dynasty of the Anglo-Saxons, 
and introduced a class of nobles who by their very 
pride and jealousy of the crown, at a later period, bO" 
came the means of changing a despotic into a constitU' 
tional government. 

2. WILLIAM KUFUS, 1087—1100. 

How completely the strong and unscrupulous hand 
of William the Conqueror had broken the spirit of the 
Saxons is clear from the fact that after his death the 
interests of Edgar Atheling and those of Harold's sons 
were entirely ignored, and that the arrangements of 
the Conqueror were acquiesced in, in spite of ancient 
usage. William, the Conqueror's second son, surnamed 
Eufus, that is red-haired, was now twenty-five years 
old. Provided with his father's letter to Lanfranc, his 
former tutor, he proceeded to England, and the arch- 
bishop, anxious to avoid anything like an election, 
crowned William Piufus in Westminster Abbey, after 
exacting from him a promise that he would govern 
according to law, cherish mercy, protect the church, 
and follow his advice. Both the Norman nobles and the 
Saxons without hesitation took the customary oath, but 
many of the former residing in Normandy conspired to 
raise their own duke Eobert to the English throne. 
William well understood that the Saxons must be his 
main support against them., and accordingly promised 



50 HISTORY OF ENGLAND, [CllAP. IV. 

to enact just and mild laws, to abolish unjust taxes, 
and the like. With the help of the Saxons, who re- 
joiced at the entire separation of England from Nor- 
mandy, William not only repelled the partizans of his 
brother in England, but by an expedition into Nor- 
mandy he obtained the cession of a portion of that 
country, and the two brothers then agreed that, if 
either of them died without issue, the other should 
succeed him in his dominions. Henry, the Conqueror's 
third son, thinking himself injured by this compact, 
threw himself into the fortress of Mount St. Michael, 
in which he was besieged by Robert, and soon compelled 
to take to flight, after which he spent several years in 
exile. 

Lanfranc, who had always guided the councils of 
William Eufus, died in 1089, and from this moment 
the king's tyrannical disposition and avarice displaj^ed 
themselves more and more without restraint. Desirous 
to enrich himself at the expense of the church, he did 
not fill the vacant see of Canterbury until, after the 
lapse of four years, a dangerous illness induced him 
to give the archbishopric to Anselm, a priest highly 
honoured for his learning and piety. Anselm, already 
in his sixty-first year, reluctantly accepted the dignity, 
but once in possession he manfully defended the rights 
of the church. Finding that he was struggling in vain 
against the avarice and arbitrary proceedings of the 
king, he resolved to go to Kome to solicit the assistance 
of the Pope. During Anselm's absence the king again 
usurped the estates and revenues of the archbishop. 
About the same time he also succeeded in gaining pos- 
session of Normandy, for Eobert, wishing to take part 
in the first crusade, mortgaged his duchies of Normandy 
and Maine for ten thousand marks, which sum William 
extorted with violence from churches and monasteries. 
But his attempt to enlarge his dominions in France 
proved a failure. He unexpectedly met his death, in 
1100, while hunting in the New Forest : an arrow shot 
by Walter Tyrrel accidentally flew into the king's 
breast and killed him. It was rumoured, however, that 
he had been murdered, and this was the more readily 



1100—1135.] iiEKRY 1. '^ ' 51 

believed, because lie was hated by the people on account 
of his dissolute life, his luxury, and his oppression of 
the church and his subjects. He had never been mar- 
ried, but had spent his life surrounded by courtezans. 



3. HENRY I, 1100—1135. 

Henry I., surnanied Beauclerc, that is, the Scholar^ 
immediately took possession of the crown, to which he 
had a legitimate claim by the regulations of his father, 
though it was contrary to the compact concluded be- 
tween William and Eobert. For this reason Henry 
thought it advisable to form a strong party for himself 
by liberal promises to the church, the barons, and the 
people. 

After he had taken the usual coronation oath, he 
secured the goodwill of the clergy by filling the sees 
which had been vacant for some time, and by recalling 
Anselm. He then issued a proclamation, promising to 
all his English subjects to follow the laws of the good 
king Edward the Confessor, with those alterations made 
b}^ his father with the advice of his barons. The Saxon 
portion of his subjects was further conciliated by his 
marrying Matilda, the niece of Edgar Atheling and 
daughter of the Scottish king Malcolm. 

Some of the Norman chiefs, however, not approving 
of this policy, again tried to raise duke Eobert to the 
throne. But the light-headed and good-natured Eobert, 
seeing that the Saxons remained faithful to Henry, con- 
tented himself with the restoration of Normandy. Some 
years later, however, in 1106, he not only lost his 
duchy, but having become involved in a feud with his 
brother, he was taken prisoner in the battle of Tenche- 
bray, and remained in captivity for twenty-eight years 
until his death. Henry vigorously coerced his vassals 
in France, and even king Louis YI. of France, after a 
long contest, in the peace of Gisors ceded to him the 
province of Brittany. 

Archbishop Anselm, after his return from Eome, had 
renewed the dispute about the right of investiture. 
Before this time the kings had exercised this right and 



52 HISTORY OP ENGLAND. [Chap. IV. 

invested tlie bishops witli ring and crozier, for which 
the bishops had to do homage to the king. Ansehn 
now refused to receive his investiture from the king. 
But as the latter, supported by the nobles, insisted upon 
his right, the Pope, Pascal II., gave way ; and when 
the king at a synod in London, 1106, declared that 
henceforth he would no longer invest any bishop with 
ring and crozier, but would still exact their homage, all 
the bishops present acknowledged their obligation to 
render homage to the king. Thus the dis]3ute about 
the investiture by wise, mutual forbearance was settled, 
and three years later Anselm died. 

The rebellious spirit of the barons in Normandy 
and their restless neighbours obliged Henry to sjDend 
half of his time in France ; but in the end he secured 
for himself the possession of all the countries his father 
had ruled over. Even the succession of his son William 
had already been sanctioned by the barons both of 
England and Normandy; but this young prince 
perished in 1120 while crossing over from Normandy 
to England : he lost his life in an attempt to save his 
sister from shipwreck. This unfortunate accident so 
deeply affected Henry that afterwards, it is said, he 
was never seen to smile, Matilda was now the only 
child left to him ; she was married in 1114 to Henry Y. 
of Germany. When her husband had died, Henry, at 
a diet of his nobles, after much discussion, prevailed 
upon them to acknowledge her as his legitimate suc- 
cessor in England and Normandy, promising at the same 
time that he would not allow her again to marry a 
foreigner. Notwithstanding this promise, however, 
Henry, in 1129, gave her in marriage to Count Geoffrey, 
of Anjou, whereby he hoped to realize his favourite 
scheme of uniting Anjou with England. Not long 
after he fell out with his new son-in-law, and just as 
he was on the point of bringing his daughter back to 
England he suddenly died in Normandy, in 1135. 

Henry during his reign had exercised strict justice 
towards all classes of his subjects, whence he was called 
the " Lion of Justice :" he restrained the power of the 
nobles and protected the people against their acts of 



1135—1154-.] STEPHEN. 53 

violence. He was also distinguiislied for his extensive 
knowledge and for tlie regard lie j)aid to men of learn- 
ing. But in other respects lie was a true Norman, 
keeping the Saxons out of all the high offices, both lay 
and clerical. 

It had not heen customary to entrust the govern- 
ment of the kingdom to a woman, and the notion that 
the intended succession of Matilda was unlawful was 
pretty general. In addition to this Henry had broken 
his promise not to give her in marriage to a foreigner. 
A report was therefore speedily spread that Henry had 
recalled or at least repented of his daughter's succession. 
The nearest heir to the throne was Theobald, the 
eldest son of count Stephen of Blois and Adela, the 
daughter of William the Conqueror ; but while Theo- 
bald was tarrying in Normandy, where several barans 
gathered round him, offering their support, the news 
reached him that his younger brother Stephen had been 
elected and crowned king of England. Stephen was 
very popular; he had large possessions in England, 
and his accession was especially supported by the 
aversion felt by the English towards the Count of 
Anjou, as well as by the influence of Stephen's brother, 
who was bishop of Winchester. When at length the 
Pope also confirmed the election of the clergy and the 
people, Stephen promised to protect the rights of 
the church and to observe the laws of the good king, 
Edward the Confessor. Even the barons in Normandy 
showed themselves little inclined to favour the Count 
of Anjou, and Stephen thus felt himself pretty secure 
ill his possessions without going across to Normandy, 

4. STEPHEI?", 1135—1154. 

The reign of Stephen, which lasted for nearly twenty 
years, was an almost uninterrupted succession of petty 
wars against Scotland and Wales, and of internal feuds 
and acts of violence, whereby the country fell into a 
state of disorder and anarcli}^ Stephen in these 
troubles had to rely chiefly upon foreign mercenaries 
from Flanders and Brittany, whose insolence and 



54 HISTORY OF EKaLAND. [CiiAP. IV. 

violence offended tlie Norman barons. Tlie king's own 
weakness and his doubtful right of succession also 
called forth disturbances in England. A conspiracy of 
Saxons, to rid themselves of their Norman oppressors, 
was fortunately frustrated ; but the Norman barons, and 
afterwards the clerical dignitaries also, endeavoured to 
secure themselves by erecting strong and fortified 
castles all over the country, which were little better 
than robbers' dens. From them they frequently sallied 
forth, plundered and maltreated the Saxon people in 
the most barbarous and cruel manner. Under these 
circumstances Matilda of Anjou, supported by her 
brother Eobert of Gloucester, landed in England, 1139, 
where now she even succeeded in enlisting the support 
of Stephen's own brother, the bishop of Winchester, 
and other powerful ecclesiastics whom the king had 
offended in his endeavours to restrain their lawless 
conduct. In an unsuccessful battle the king became 
the prisoner of Eobert, and the bishop of Winchester 
even induced the clergy to recognise Matilda as the 
lawful sovereign ; the English people, however, con- 
tinued their strong aversion to the House of Anjou. 
The bishop of Winchester, at this time papal legate 
in England, indignant at Matilda's refusal to restore 
the captive king to freedom, now turned against her 
and caused her to be besieged at Winchester. She 
escaped, but her brother and champion was taken 
prisoner. She now consented to an exchange in which 
both Stephen and Eobert were set free. The civil 
war, however, continued fiercer than ever for five long 
years, during which Eobert recovered Normandy and 
the western half of England for his sister. In 1147 
Matilda's son, Henry of Anjou, and Stephen's son 
Eustace, began to take part in the struggle, which was 
carried on with varying success. Stejohen himself 
showed so little ability that even after the death of 
Eobert he was unable to secure his throne. When at 
length his son Eustace died, the desire of peace after 
so much bloodshed led the bishop of Winchester and 
the archbishop of Canterbury to negotiate a treaty, 
whereby Stephen was recognised by Henry of Anjou 



1154—1189.] HENRY II. 55 

and his followers as king of England, wliile Henry 
himself was to be his successor. Henry, through his 
marriage with Eleanor, the divorced wife of Louis YII. 
of France, had obtained Poitou and Guienne, in addition 
to his duchy of Normandy and Anjou. Thus the 
future king of England was at the same time a powerful 
ruler over a great part of France. The castles erected 
by the nobles were to be given up to Stephen, but as 
he had been obliged to dismiss most of his foreign 
mercenaries he was unable to effect this object, and he 
soon after died, in October, 1154. His second son 
remained in the undisputed possession of the county 
of Boulogne, which he inherited from his mother, but 
the crown of England now passed to the House of 
Anjou, which in history bears the name of Plantagenet, 
so called from planta genista (a kind of Spanish broom), 
which the founder of the house had worn on his helmet 
during the crusade. 



CHAPTER V. 

THE PLANTAGENET KINGS. 

Henry II. . . . 1154—1189 ] Richard I. . . . 1189—1199 
John. .... 1199—1216 

1. HENRY II., 1151—1189. 

When Henry II., in consequence of the contract made 
with Stephen, became his successor, he was only 
twenty-two years old, but already in possession of 
very extensive domains ; the young monarch was en- 
dowed by nature with excellent abilities, which he 
used in the best way to extend his powers. When he 
heard of the death of Stephen he was engaged in 
quelling some disturbances which had arisen in France 
against Louis YII., but he immediately proceeded to 
England to take possession of the kingdom. He was 



56 HISTORY 03? ENGLAND. [Chap. V. 

received with entlmsiasm, and in December, 1154, he 
was crowned at Westminster by the archbishop of 
Canterbury, and soon after assembled the great nobles 
at his court. His first acts at this meeting inspired 
ever}^ one with the best hopes, for he confirmed the 
liberties of the city of London, and measures were taken 
to get rid of the remaining foreign mercenaries, and to 
destroy the castles erected by the nobles for the 
purpose of oppressing and plundering the surrounding 
country. Henry further resumed the crown lands 
which had been given away by his feeble predecessor. 
These last measures he carried out in person at the 
head of an army, and his subjects were thereby con- 
firmed in the hope that the king would rule according 
to the laws of Henry I., and everywhere maintain peace 
and justice. At another meeting in the following year 
he caused his nobles to take the oath of allegiance both 
to himself and his two sons, who, however, did not 
survive him. For some time Henry II. was engaged 
in w^ars against the AVelsh and the Scots, who were 
making inroads in the north of England, but at the 
close of the campaign he left to the king of Scotland 
the earldom of Huntingdon. 

It so happened that a few days before Henry's coro- 
nation Hadrian IV., an Englishman, had been raised to 
the papal throne; he now issued a bull, probably at 
Henry's own suggestion, by which the king of England 
was authorised and admonished to conquer Ireland, the 
object being to connect that island more closely with 
the see of Eome. But before Henry could engage in 
this enterprise he had to contend with his brother 
Geoffrey, who maintained that, by an ordinance of his 
father, he had a right to all the family possessions in 
France. Geoffrey, however, was soon obliged to give 
up his pretensions and to be satisfied with a pension. 
But the feuds in France continued, Henry endeavouring 
to secure to himself districts belonging to other 
members of his family. In these acts of aggrandise- 
ment he was supported during the first years of his 
reign by his chancellor, Thomas a Becket, who, by his 
tidroitness and amiable disposition, had so won the 



1154—1189.] HENRY 11. 67 

affections' of the king that in 1162 he was raised to 
the archbishopric of Canterbury. The king hoped that 
Becket, in his high ecclesiastical position, would remain 
his friend and assist him in his endeavours to establish 
a proper relation between the secular and ecclesiastical 
powers. 

The king was all the more justified in this hope 
because Becket, the son of a London citizen, was the 
first Saxon since the Norman conquest who had been 
raised to high honours ; but Becket, when he had 
once entered upon his office, steadily pursued but one 
object — to raise the secular power of his own order. 
With this view he at once resigned the office of chan- 
cellor in order to be more independent of the court. 
He led personally a most austere life, and thus sur- 
rounded himself with the halo of sanctity. The clergy 
at that time were notorious for many crimes and mis- 
demeanours, and the king was specially desirous to 
have such offences tried by lay courts ; but Becket main- 
tained that no layman could judge a priest. As however 
a considerable number of English bishops were opposed 
to this doctrine, Becket declared himself ready to yield. 
As this, however, was done in a somewhat evasive 
manner, the king resolved, in 1164, to summon a 
meeting of his barons and the higher clergy at 
Clarendon, near Salisbury, in order to determine 
what were the ancient customs of the kingdom in 
ecclesiastical matters. The assembly passed sixteen 
articles known under the name of the Clarendon Con- 
stitutions. The chief provisions were that a priest 
accused of crime should be tried by a secular court, 
that no priest should quit the country without the 
king's permission, that the revenues of vacant bishoprics 
should belong to the king, and that they should be 
filled up by the clergy convened by the king, subject 
to his approval. In fact, all provisions of these Con- 
stitutions aimed at restricting the privileges of the 
clergy. 

Becket was the only one of the bishops present who 
refused to recognise the validity of the resolutions, 
though in the end he signed and sealed the document. 



58 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. V, 

But no sooner had lie left the assembly than he "began 
to repent of what he had done. It was evident that 
the national customs of the Saxons had come into 
violent collision with the papal decrees, and several 
attempts were made to bring about a reconciliation. 
In October of the same year the king summoned a great 
council at Northampton, before which Becket was sum- 
moned to account for his not having appeared in a suit 
instituted against him. When, after a long discussion, 
he was found guilty, he appealed to the Pope and 
secretly made his escape to France, where he obtained 
the protection of the king, while Henry in the mean- 
lime enjoyed the revenues of the archbishop. Becket 
was six years absent from England, and king Louis' 
protection of him led to a war w^ith France, in which 
Henry gained some advantages. While in Eome 
Becket resigned his dignity of archbishop into the 
hands of the Pope, who, however, restored it to him, 
and in addition appointed him papal legate for England. 
Becket now acted with greater vehemence against 
Henry : he excommunicated the bishops who were 
opposed to him, and even threaten ed the king with an 
interdict and excommunication. In the meantime 
negotiations were continued, but when Henry II. 
refused a complete reconciliation with Becket, the Pope 
himself threatened him with interdict. 

Owing to the mediation of Louis of France, Henry at 
length consented to Becket returning to his archbishopric, 
but without any allusion to the Clarendon Constitutions. 
Becket returned to England in December, 1170, but as 
those who had taken possession of the archbishop's 
cnta-tes refused to give them back, he at once pro- 
nounced excommunication against them. Three bishops 
who were excommunicated now repaired to the king, 
who was then staying in Normandy, and by informing 
him of what had happened irritated him so much that 
he exclaimed, " Is there no one who will rid me of this 
intriguing priest ?" These words were caught up by 
four courtiers ; they secretly hastened across the sea, 
and the king's messengers sent after them were unable 
to overtake them. On their arrival at Canterbury 



1154—1189.] HENRY II. 59 

they vehemently demanded of the archbishop to recall 
the sentence pronounced upon the bishops who were 
faithful to their king. Becket refused gently but 
firmly, and although his adversaries now threatened 
violence, he could not be prevailed upon to take to 
flight. Some monks then dragged him into the church, 
where, as they thought, he would be safe. "With calm- 
ness he awaited his enemies, and when they again with 
threats pressed him to recall his excommunication, he 
replied, " I fear neither you nor your swords." A blow 
was then aimed at him, and while commending his 
spirit to God he received a second blow v/hich broke 
his skull. The murderers then plundered his palace 
and rode off. This terrible deed was done on the 
29th of December, 1170, and a little more than two 
years later Becket was canonised as a saint and 
martyr. 

Henry 11. knew well that this crime only injured 
his cause : for three days he shut himself up without 
taking any food, and then sent an embassy to Eome to 
clear himself from the suspicion of having been the 
instigator of the murder. Pope Alexander III. ordered 
an enquiry to be instituted. The murderers were at 
once excommunicated, but when afterwards they ap- 
peared in Eome full of repentance and contrition, they 
were ordered to do penance by joining the crusaders, 
and going to the Holy Land. 

After these events Henry II. turned his attention to 
Ireland. Ever since the eighth century Danes and 
Norwegians had settled in that island, and the natives, 
disunited among themselves, had facilitated the settling 
of foreigners among them. Irish kings, however, con- 
tinued to govern by far the greater part of the countrj^. 
The Christianity of the Irish had some things peculiar, 
ajid was independent of the Eoman see. Even in the 
time of William the Conqueror and Henry I. the popes 
had wished to draw Ireland into connection with the 
Eoman Church. When the papal bull empowered 
Henry II. to subdue Ireland, he was engaged by other 
and more pressing business, but now a favourable op- 
portunity offered itself for carrying out the pope's 



60 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. [Char V. 

design. One of the Irisli kings having been expelled 
songht the protection of Henry II., and an English 
adventurer, earl Eichard, snrnamed Strongbow, accom- 
panied by others, made conquests in the east of the 
island, which, in 1171, he surrendered to the English 
king, but which he received back as tenant in chief of 
the English crown. In the same year Henry himself 
landed in Ireland, and all the princes, with the ex- 
ception of the king of Ulster, recognised him as their 
superior. The Irish clergy also took the oath of 
allegiance to the king of England, who, at a synod, 
presided over by a papal legate, caused the rites and 
customs different from those of the Eoman Church to 
be abolished. Although the greater part of Ireland 
had thus become subject to the English crown, it was 
manifest that the chiefs of the nation little intended 
to give up their own authority - 

After his return from Ireland, Henry II. asserted, 
upon a solemn oath before the papal legate, that he was 
innocent of the murder of Becket, and at the same 
time promised to abolish all the articles of the Clarendon 
Constitutions which were not based upon ancient 
customs or had originated in his own reign. He ob- 
tained, however, one important concession, viz., that 
without his consent, henceforth no appeal should be 
made to Home. 

After the canonisation of Becket in 1173, Henry 
made a pilgrimage to his tomb for the purpose of 
showing his sorrow and doing penance. By this public 
humiliation before the remains of the revered martyr, 
the king gained great popularity. But troubles now 
broke out in the royal family. At the instigation of 
queen Eleanor, who was offended by the king's in- 
lidelities, Henry, the king's eldest son, defied his 
authority, and caused great disturbances both in Eng- 
land and France ; but king Henry, with the assistance 
of his knights and mercenaries, soon crushed the re- 
bellious spirit, and young Henry was forced to submit 
to his father. "William, king of Scotland, also took 
part in these feuds, but was conquered and taken 
prisoner in a battle at Alnwick, and recovered his 



1154—1189.] HENRY II. 61 

freedom only by ceding a portion of Scotland and doing 
homage to tlie king of England. The Scottish clergy, 
also, had to acknowledge the supremacy of the English 
church. The English rebels likewise submitted, and 
as Henry's sons also returned to obedience and did 
homage for their possessions in France and Ireland, 
there now followed some 3'ears of peace, during which 
the king devoted himself to the organisation and ad- 
ministration of the internal affairs of his kingdom. 
His anxiety to maintain peace and justice led him, like 
his grandfather, Henry I., to regard the Saxon element 
as the surest foundation of his power and to introduce 
truly national institutions. By the Clarendon Con- 
stitutions he had saved the independence of the English 
Church ; and he now strengthened the self-government 
of towns, developed the system of trial by jury, secured 
the means of defending England against foreign ag- 
gression, and especially promoted the interests of cities, 
and, above all, of London, by the strict administration 
of justice, and favouring the institutions of corporations 
and guilds. In short, he employed the time of peace 
with energy and prudence, to strengthen his own 
authority and to gain the respect of both his subjects 
and of the neighbouring nations. His two daughters 
were married to foreign kings, and his five sons were 
placed in pretty independent positions, but they showed 
little gratitude for the confidence reposed in them by 
their father. 

The old jealousy between his two sons, Henry and 
Eichard, led to a series of severe struggles, in which 
the father sided with Eichard. Young Henry died 
during the war, in 1183. Not long afterwards Eichard 
also quarrelled with his father because he spoiled, and 
on every occasion showed a preference for, his youngest 
son John. The king also fell out with Geoffrej^ who, 
however, died in 1186. Henry II. had intended to 
undertake a crusade, but the faithlessness of his sons, 
and the interference of king Philip Augustus of France 
in these disputes, prevented him from carrying out the 
pledge to fight against the infidels. In the end the 
French king, with the assistance of Eichard and John, 



62 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. V. 

the latter of whom now likewise showed a rebellious 
spirit against his father, compelled king Henry to con- 
clude an inglorious peace. The king, broken-hearted, 
survived this sorrow only a few days, and none but a 
natural son, who alone remained faithful to him, was 
present at his death-bed in 1180. Only two of his 
legitimate sons, Eichard and John, survived him, and 
they in succession occupied the throne of England 
after him. 

Henry II. displayed during his life an unwearied 
activity, but was often led away by passion; he 
vigorously, though not without harshness, controlled 
the countries subject to his sceptre. His interest for 
literature was shown by his surrounding himself with 
the most eminent men of the time, both scholars and 
poets. 

2. RICHARD I., 1189-1199. 

Eichard I., surnamed Coeur de Lion, that is, lion- 
hearted, was thirty-two years old when his father died ; 
he had already possessed for many years Aquitaine and 
Poitou. He followed his father's body to the grave 
with deep repentance for what he had done, and 
hastened to Eouen to obtain the absolution of his sin. 
To his younger brother John, he left the possessions 
entrusted to him by his father ; he retained the wisest 
of his father's councillors and released his mother 
Eleanor from the confinement in which she had been 
kept by her husband for many a year, entrusting her 
at the same time with the regency of England. He 
then hastened to London to receive the crown; his 
coronation became the unfortunate occasion of a cruel 
persecution. Several wealthy Jews who had pressed 
forward in the crowd to see the king were murdered, 
and as the people, not only of England but of all 
Europe, were at that time fanatically excited against 
unbelievers of every description, the example of 
London was imitated in many other places, where 
Jews were indiscriminately murdered. Eichard's at- 
tempts to stop these cruel proceedings were of no 
avail. 



1189—1199.] RICHARD I. 63 

Soon after his coronation tlie king resolved to under- 
take a crusade against the Saracens in the Holy Land, 
and for this purpose he amassed as much money as he 
could : rights and privileges were ojoenly sold, and 
whoever gave money obtained lands and honours ; even 
"the king of Scotland bought his exemption from doing 
homage to Eichard for the small sum of ten thousand 
marks. When, on the 12th of December, 1190, the king 
set out, he appointed his favourite, Yf illiam, bishop of 
Ely, surnamed Lougchamp, regent of the kingdom, 
leaving to him the uncontrolled administration, adding 
to his dignity of chancellor that of grand justiciary, 
and procuring him the powers of a papal legate. 

Richard undertook the crusade in conjunction with 
Philip Augustus, of France, their united forces amount- 
ing to one hundred thousand men. But there soon 
arose between them a feeling of jealousy, each wishing 
to appear as the first champion of Christendom. On 
his arrival in Sicily he further offended the French 
king by his betrothal with Berengaria of Kavarre, 
whom he took with him to the Holy Land, and married 
in the isle of Cyprus. Even before he left Sicily he 
heard of the arbitrary proceedings of William of Ely, 
which induced him to send commissioners to England 
to enquire into his conduct. But these commissioners 
did not even dare to present their letters to him. 
Meanwhile, his brother John, whom he had treated 
only with too much kindness, thinking it improbable 
that his bold and audacious brother would ever return, 
began to aim at the throne for himself. Richard 
before his departure had recognised his nephew, Arthur, 
son of his elder brother Geofi'rey, as his successor. With 
this view, and with the assistance of the barons and 
the citizens of London, John tried to overthrow the 
bishop of Ely, who, by his insolence and arbitrary 
doings, had drawn upon himself universal hatred. 
Even Philip Augustus was not foreign to John's 
scheme, but the queen -mother Eleanor successfully 
maintained the authority of Richard, and William of 
Ely took to flight. 

When, at length, the news arrived that Richard 



64: HISTOllY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. V. 

was a prisoner in Germany, Jolin went so far as to 
declare to the French, king that he would not con- 
clude any peace with his brother without the consent 
of Philip Angustiis, in return for which John was 
to have the kingdom of England and his brother's 
French possessions. But the lawful king's authority 
was again maintained by Eleanor and archbishop 
Walter, who had been appointed grand justiciar3^ 
The Pope also was induced to threaten the disturbers 
of peace in England with interdict and excommunica- 
tion. Meanwhile, Eichard, who was still a prisoner 
of Henry YI., of Germany, consented to do homage to 
him as the greatest ruler in Christendom and to paj^ 
him an annual tribute. But Henry, not satisfied with 
this, had his captive brought before a diet at Worms, 
and charged him with several offences and mis- 
demeanours. Eichard defended himself manfully, and 
the German princes condemned the conduct of the 
emperor, whereupon Eichard obtained his liberty for a 
ransom of one hundred and fifty thousand marks. In 
order to raise this sum, William of Ely, who, while 
abroad, had been kindly received by Eichard, was sent 
to England. Several months passed before the mone}^ 
was ready; and in 1194, Eichard, having recovered 
his freedom, returned to England, where he was 
received in triumph. A few months later he assembled 
a diet of his barons, in which John was declared to 
have forfeited all his possessions ; but when the latter 
threw himself at the king's feet, he received a generous 
pardon through the interference of his mother. 

A few words must be said about Eichard's captivity. 
He had entered upon what was the third crusade, from 
1191 to 1192. His first great exploit in the East was 
the capture of Acre, which had been besieged for two 
years. On that occasion he had affronted duke Leopold 
of Austria, and a few da^'s later Philip Augustus, 
jealous of Eichard's rising fame, returned to France. 
Eichard now, with fearful losses, advanced towards 
Jerusalem ; but finding it impossible single-handed to 
effect anything, he concluded a peace with Saladin, on 
condition that Acre, Joppa, and a portion of the sea- 



1189— 1199.] RICHAED L 65 

coast should be given up to the Christians, and that 
pilgrims to Jerusalem should not he molested. A 
further inducement to conclude this peace was afforded 
him by information about the schemes of his brother 
John. On his return home he avoided passing through 
France ; and, being shipwrecked in the Adriatic, he 
resolved to proceed in disguise through Germany. In 
the neighbourhood of Vienna he was recognised and 
arrested by the order of duke Leopold, who had, how- 
ever, to deliver him up to the emperor. He was then 
confined in a castle in the Tyrol, and afterwards placed 
before the above-mentioned diet at Worms. 

The news of his imprisonment had called forth in 
England the greatest indignation, and even his former 
enemies felt sympathy with him. On his arrival he 
was crowned a second time at Winchester ; and having 
pardoned his brother he proceeded to Normandy in 
1194 to avenge himself upon the French king. The 
desultory war in which he was thus engaged, and 
which is of little interest to us now, lasted until 1199, 
when a truce was concluded for five years. A few 
months after this peace Eichard ended his career by an 
inglorious death ; for while besieging a castle in Poitou, 
he was wounded in the shoulder by an arrow, and 
through the unskilful management of Ihe surgeon th 
injury proved fatal. He died on the 8th of April, 1199. 
Eichard had all along treated his nephew Arthur as 
his successor, but he had at last been induced by his 
mother to leave the kingdom to his brother John. 

The reign of Eichard I. was indeed brilliant, but 
comparatively useless. He was a man of prodigious 
bodily strength, and delighted in exercising it ; he was 
never more happy than when dashing into the tumult 
of a battle, or storming a fortified castle. The life in 
England seems to have been unpleasant to him, for 
during his whole reign he spent scarcely six months in 
his own kingdom, which was given up to disorder, and 
sorely ground down by his wars and the ransom which 
had to Toe paid for bis liberatiQA, 



66 HISTORY OF ENGLANDo [Chap. V. 



r, 1199—1216. 

The riglit of succession was as as yet not well regulated 
in England. The king himself had generally fixed 
upon a successor, hut in the Anglo-Saxon period such 
an arrangement always had required the sanction of 
the "Witenagemot. Latterly, however, it had become 
customary for the king to nominate his successor. 
John's right to the crown was not universally acknow- 
ledged, and the barons in the dominions in France 
maintained that Prince Arthur was the legitimate 
heir to the English throne. This feeling induced John 
immediately after his coronation to proceed to Nor- 
mandy, and archbishop Hubert of Canterbury pre- 
vailed upon the barons to recognise John on condition 
of his taking an oath to protect the church, abolish bad 
laws, and to maintain justice throughout his dominions. 
Philip Augustus of France strengthened Prince Arthur, 
who was staying at his court, in his opposition to his 
uncle ; but his mother Constance, jealous of the French 
king's influence over her son, took him away from 
Paris and persuaded him to make his peace with John. 
This was done, and Philip Augustus, too, came to an 
understanding with John, who, however, was to appear 
before a court of the French king, his feudal superior. 
But as John refused he was declared to have forfeited 
all his feudal possessions. The French king now also 
made Arthur revoke his acknowledgment of John, and 
when the young prince commenced open hostilities 
against him, he had the misfortune of being made his 
uncle's prisoner. John kept him in close confinement, 
and in the following year, 1203, the prince suddenly 
disappeared, the report being that the English king 
had slain him with his own hand and thrown his body 
into the Seine. The French king summoned John to 
answer the charge made against him, but as this 
summons was again met by a refusal, John was 
declared a parricide, and to have forfeited all his 
French possessions. Philip Augustus now took up 
arms against him, and in a few years John was com- 
pelled to conclude a peace, in 1206, in which he had 



1199—1216.] JOHK. 67 

to cede Normandy and all his continental possessions 
to the king of France. 

John had been driven to conclude this j)eace, or 
rather truce, for two j^ears, because he was involved in 
a disastrous conflict with the ambitious Pope, Inno- 
cent III. The archbishopric of Canterbury had be- 
come vacant by the death of Hubert, and John charged 
the monks, who had made their election without his 
sanction, to proceed to a new election, which was made 
without consulting the bishops. Pope Innocent III. 
took advantage of this for the purpose of putting an 
end to several exceptional privileges belonging to the 
English church. With this view he caused the monks 
sent to Eome by the chapter of Canterbury to elect 
Stephen Langton, an Englishman distinguished for 
learning, purity of character, and practical wisdom. 
The Pope indeed asked John to sanction the election, 
but at the same time declared such sanction to be 
unnecessary. John, greatly enraged at this assertion, 
wrote angrily to the Pope, that he would never 
sanction the appointment of Langton. John neglected 
no opportunity of showing his contempt of the papal 
authority by attacking the jDroperty of the clergy, and 
stopping the papal jurisdiction in England. At the 
same time he offended both his barons and the clergy 
by imposing exorbitant taxes upon them. 

The Pope now, in 1208, had recourse to energetic 
measures, laying England under an interdict. John in ' 
retaliation ordered all priests without distinction to be 
expelled. This measure called forth, so many acts of 
violence that the king himself became frightened, and 
he now endeavoured to secure the fidelity of his nobles 
by compelling them to give up their sons to him as 
hostages. John, however, thought it prudent to enter 
into negotiations with the Pope, and to allow Langton 
to take possession of the archiepiscopal throne. But as 
the king persisted in his obstinacy the sentence of 
excommunication was pronounced upon him. Fear 
and terror no^v made him restless, and he endeavoured 
to drown this feeling by traversing his ov/n country, 
watching every hostile movement, and by making war 



68 HISTORY OF EKGLAND. [Chap. V. 

against Scotland and Wales. Scotland again liad to 
acknowledge tlie feudal supremacy of England ; Ireland 
was divided into counties and liad to accept English 
laws ; and "Wales was gradually reduced to a state of 
dependence. But these wars, which lasted till 1211, 
though successful, had increased the taxes by which 
both the nobles and the people were oppressed. The 
discontent became general, and insurrections broke 
out which only led the king to fresh acts of violence, 
cruelty, and oppression. The king of France was com- 
missioned by the Pope to carry out the sentence of 
excommunication. In 1212 John was declared deposed, 
the English throne was promised to the French king, 
and the English barons were released from their oath 
of allegiance. The Pope, anticipating that John would 
be cowed by these measures, sent his legate, Pandolf, 
to England, who was to try to make John see his evil 
ways. The king had already assembled an army of 
sixty thousand men near Dover to meet his enemies 
from France. Pandolf 's eloquence made John tremble, 
and his obstinacy was broken at once. In May, 1213, 
John took an oath to submit to the papal see, and 
promised to answer all the charges for which he had 
been excommunicated, and especially to grant a safe 
return to the bishops and monks of Canterbury, and 
permit Langton to enter upon his archbishopric. 
Lastly, the king had to lay down the crown of England 
and Ireland into the hands of the papal legate, and to 
receive it back as the vassal of the Pope. 

The English nobility keenly felt this humiliation and 
the dependence of their kingdom upon a foreign poten- 
tate, but Pandolf ordered them with a threat of excom- 
munication to support their king, who had now become 
quite a different man, against the king of France. The 
latter was forbidden, in the name of the Pope, to un- 
dertake anything against England. The country might 
now have enjoyed a period of peace, but John was 
bent upon maldng an attack upon Poitou, a plan which 
he would have carried out at once, had not his own 
subjects refused to do military service under him. At 
last, however, having amassed a large treasure and a 



1199—1216.] JOHN. (ji) 

niimerons army, lie proceeded to Poitoit. The Pope in 
vain endeavoured to mediate between liim and tlie 
king of France. Jolm gained indeed some advantages, 
but in tlie nortli bis army was utterly routed in a great 
battle at Bovines, in consequence of wbicli he was 
forced to conclude a peace, in vdiich again he ceded to 
France all the country north of the Loire, and even 
left several forts in Poitou and Guienne in the hands 
of the French king. • 

The effects of this defeat were nowhere felt more 
keenly than in England; scarcely had he returned 
Avhen the discontented nobles held a meeting, at v/hich 
they declared upon oath, that, if king John refused to 
observe the laws and liberties granted to them by 
Henry I. and the good king Edward, they would rise 
against him and make war upon him, until he acceded 
to their demands. The king took refuge in London, but 
the barons followed him and defiantly demanded the 
confirmation of the Charter of Llenry I. ; this hapjaened 
in the beginning of the year 1215. John asked for 
time to deliberate, but he employed it in attempts to 
separate the interests of the clergy from those of the 
barons. LJis opponents openly refused to obey him, 
and appeared with flying banners before l^orthampton 
Castle. Their numbers increased from all parts of 
England, as they formed connections with the king of 
Scotland and the Britons of Wales. When, at length, 
the council of the city of London joined them, their 
plans assumed a more definite form. The king, who 
vras at this time at Windsor, sent v^ord to his barons 
that he was graciously disposed to grant their requests, 
asking them to fix upon a time and place for meeting. 
Delighted with this message, they chose the 15th of 
June, on which day they were to meet at Punnymede, 
near Staines. Both parties appeared early in the 
morning ; the nobles all in arms, the king surrounded 
by the primate and other high ecclesiastical dignitaries. 
A charter was drawn up consisting of sixty-three 
articles ; it was signed by the king, and is known by 
the name of the Magna CJiarfa. It has ever since 
formed the foundation of the constitutional liberties of 



70 HISTORY OF ENaLAND. [Chap. V. 

England. The object of tlie barons was not to create 
a new law, or a new constitution, but only to obtain 
a confirmation of ancient liberties and guarantees for 




kt:'g joh\ '?TG^^:N■':i irvoxA CHAnrA.. 



tlieir future observance. This great c'harter has been 
ratified no less than thirty-eight times during suc- 
ceeding reigns. 

The king for the present assented to everything ; he 
ordered the castles and hostages belonging to the nobles 
to be restored, the mercenaries to be dismissed, and to 
appoint twenty-five barons as conservators of the 
public liberties, to whom the whole country had to 
swear obedience. But it was evident that he was 
meditating revenge for what he considered an insult 
to himself. As he was a vassal of the papal see, 
he induced the Pope to issue a bull declaring the 



1199—121(3.] JOHN. 71 

charter null and void, and tlireatening excommunica- 
tion to every one who should obey it. Many of the 
barons, especially those in London and in the north, 
still remained in arms and kept up an understanding 
with the king of France ; nay, they went so far as to 
Oifer the crown to Louis, son of Philip Augustus. The 
result was that Louis landed in England in 1216 and 
advanced to London, where the assembled barons did 
homage to him. He then commenced war with John, 
who endeavoured to increase his adherents by proclaim- 
ing an amnesty. The national spirit, however, was 
not well disposed to the alliance between the barons 
and the foreign prince. About the same time Pope- 
Innocent III. died, and John now felt the whole weight 
of his misfortunes. The barons rejoiced, and every 
one began to hope that the new pope would follow a 
different policy. The king roused himself to a last 
and desperate move ; but while he was traversing the 
country with his armed bands, ravaging and destroying 
towns and villages, his career was cut short by death. 
As he was marching in Lincolnshire by the sea-shore 
the tide unexpectedly overtook him, carrying away a 
great portion of his army and all his baggage. John 
himself escaped, but his health being already much 
impaired, he was attacked by a violent fever, and a few 
days afterwards, on the 19th of October, 1216, he died 
at Newark ; his body was conveyed by his mercenaries 
to Worcester, where it v/as buried. 

King John, commonly surnamed Lack-land (because 
his father had assigned to him no share in his posses- 
sions), was one of the most dissolute men and the 
most tyrannical ruler: he was alternately brave and 
cowardly, and sacrificed the independence of his king- 
dom to his own personal objects. He was guilty of 
most appalling acts of cruelty ; but these very qualities 
led to the formation of the Magna Charta, which 
secured for all time the liberty of the English nation. 
His reign, moreover, was the period during which the 
Saxons and Normans became blended into one nation, 
and displayed their national feeling in their opposition 
to Prince Louis of France. 



^2 HISTOEY or ENGLAND. [Chap. VI. 

CHAPTER VL 

THE PLANTAGENET KINGS — Continued. 



Henry III. , . . 1216-1272 
Edward I. . . , 1272-1307 
Edward II. . . , 1307-1327 



Edward III, . . 1327-1377 
Ricliard II. . . . 1377-1399 



4. HENSY in., 1216—1272. 

The Pope was still lord paramount of England, 
and Jolm had recommended to him his eldest son 
Henry, then nine years old, as his successor. He 
was crowned at Gloucester in October, 1216, taking 
the usual coronation oath, and at the same time that 
of vassal to the Pope for England and Ireland. The 
marshal of England, the earl of Pembroke, who had 
shown the most unswerving fidelity to the late king, 
was appointed his guardian and protector of the king- 
dom. The Magna Charta was renewed, though with 
some alterations ; and this popular measure increased 
the partizans of the new king, whose influence was 
further strengthened by the fact that Prince Louis, 
who still claimed the crown of England, had offended 
the feelings of the English. At last, as Louis con- 
tinued his hostility against the new king, he was 
excommunicated by the papal legate Guala, and being 
driven to extremities, concluded a truce v/ith earl 
Pembroke and quitted England. 

When, in 1223, Louis succeeded his father as 
Louis VIII., he attacked Poitou, forgetting the promise 
he had made. Henry III. now crossed over to Prance, 
but produced no results ; he had lost his wise and 
brave guardian as early as the year 1218, whereupon 
there arose a dispute about the guardianship, which 
Peter, the unworthy bishop of Winchester, a native of 
Poitou, secured for himself, to the disparagement of 
the king's faithful counsellor, the grand justiciary 
Hubert de Burgh. This prelate filled all high offices 
with foreigners, and when, in 1236, Henry married 
Eleanor, the daughter of the count of Provence, thero 



1216—1272.] HENEY III. 73 

followed anotlier influx of Frenclimen. This excessive 
influence of foreigners was vigorously opposed hj 
Eichard, earl of Pembroke, tlie son of tlie king's late 
guardian; tlie king liiniself also gradually came to 
see that lie was only a tool in the hands of foreigners, 
and the bishop of Winchester, being at length dej)rived 
of his power, spent the remainder of his life in retii'e- 
nient. The English barons, however, still maintained 
a deflant attitude towards the king, and they, together 
with the English clergy, held a succession of meetings 
at which gradually an increasing opposition was formed, 
which assumed the name of Parliament. 

Notwithstanding his oath, Henry had repeatedly 
violated the great Charter, in consequence of which a 
vast amount of discontent arose even among the great 
mass of his subjects, especially on account of the 
extortions resorted to by him. While he endeavoured 
to find support with the Pope, his own brother, 
Eichard of Cornwall, thought it right to censure him 
for squandering the treasures of England. But the 
discontented barons soon found a more energetic 
spokesman in Simon de Montfort, who was married to 
the king's sister, Eleanor, and through his earldom of 
Leicester, occupied a prominent position among the 
English barons. The king's relation to the papacy 
absorbed enormous sums of money; and the circum- 
stance that the king at a diet in London again 
demanded vast sums to enable him once more to try to 
recover his French possessions, at length led the barons 
to declare that they would not follow hinr. Henry 
nevertheless undertook the campaign into France ; but 
as the English parliament refused the necessary money, 
and as even the nobles of Poitou did not support him, 
the king, in 1243, was forced to conclude a truce in 
which all Poitou was given up to the French. 

There now followed a period in which nothing of 
much importance happened, until finally a peace was 
agreed upon in 1259, in which Henry gave up all 
claim to both ]N"ormandy and Poitou. These foreign 
enterprises and the profligate conduct of the king 
himself, constantly obliged him to demand large 



74 HlSTOUt OF ENGLAND. [Chap. VI. 

supplies from liis subjects, and even induced him to 
solicit presents from the nobilit)^ He generally gained 
his end by making liberal promises, such as to confirm 
the Charter, to undertake a crusade, &c. But these 
promises were no sooner made than they were broken. 
When at length, upon the crown of Sicily being offered 
to his son, he again demanded exorbitant sums from 
his subjects, the barons appeared in arms at West- 
minster, requesting the king to assemble a parliament 
for the purpose of settling the affairs of the kingdom. 
This parliament met at Oxford in 1258, and is known 
under the name of the Mad Parliament, from the dis- 
orderly manner in which the business was conducted,, 
for the barons appeared fully armed, and the king was 
little better than their prisoner. It was, however, 
agreed there, that a commission of fifteen barons 
should be appointed, with Montfort at their head, to 
draw up a scheme of reform, which the king was 
obliged to confirm beforehand with an oath. The 
reforms they made, known as the Oxford Statutes, 
demanded that the great Charter should be confirmed, 
that all the great offices of State and the castles of the 
kingdom should be held by natives, that marriages of 
wards with foreigners should be restrained, and that 
twenty-four persons should be chosen, twelve by the 
barons and twelve by the king, who should watch 
over the faithful administration of the laws, and be 
responsible to parliament, which was to meet three 
times in every year. The parliament, moreover, was 
to be attended by four knights chosen by the free- 
holders of each county, who were to lay before it any 
grievances that might come under their notice. These 
and other measures were calculated to secure the 
interests of the people as well as of the barons, though 
the government was virtually in the hands of the 
fifteen. 

For two years the kingdom, on the whole, enjoyed 
peace and tranquillity, but as the nobles began to 
quarrel among themselves, and the Pope released 
Henry from the oath to observe the Oxford Statutes, 
the king thought the time had come to recover his 



1216—1272.] HENRY III. 75 

authority. With this view he vi,sited the French 
king, Louis IX., and induced him to undertake the 
mediation between himself and his barons. To this 
arrangement both parties consented. But while Henry 
was still in France, a civil war was on the point of 
breaking out in England ; it was, however, prevented 
by negotiation, in which the Oxford Statutes were 
again confirmed. Louis of France, however, at a 
council at Amiens, in 1264, gave it as his award that 
the decrees of Oxford and all the articles depending on 
them should be annulled ; but at the same time he 
declared that all the earlier statutes, enacted before 
those of Oxford, should be maintained, and that an 
amnesty should be proclaimed. The barons, though 
bound to acquiesce in the verdict of the French king, 
were dissatisfied, and accordingly made preparations 
for renewing the war. Several towns, such as 
Nottingham, were sacked and ravaged by the 
Eoyalists, headed by the king himself and his brother 
Eichard. The king's son. Prince Edward, and his 
cousin Henry also took part in the war. Montfort 
and his party being in possession of the castle of 
Kenilworth laid waste the country far and wide, 
until at last a great battle was fought near Lewes 
(May, 1264), in which the Eoyalist army was defeated, 
and King Henry and his brother, Eichard, were taken 
prisoners. Immediately after the battle, Montfort 
granted a truce to the vanquished, called the Mise of 
Lewes, by which the king and his brother were set 
free, but Prince Edward and his cousin Henry 
remained as hostages in the hands of the victors, 
while all other matters were to be settled by a 
parliament. Montfort and his party now had all 
the power in their own hands, and he at once 
issued a writ for parliament to meet on the 20th of 
January, 1265. This parliament forms an era in our 
constitutional history, for Montfort, who had always 
shown a leaning towards the popular element, sum- 
moned to it not only the barons and prelates, but one 
hundred of the higher clergy, two knights from every 
shire, and two representatives from, every city and 



7iJ HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. VI. 

borough, so that this parliament was at once a 
representation of the barons and of the people. 

It seems that the young earl of Gloucester, jealous 
of Montfort's power and influence, deserted the cause 
of the barons and joined the Eoyalists. Prince Edward 
also, having esca[)ed from his keepers, collected a force 
with which he surprised Montfort's son at Kenilworth. 
He thence proceeded against the elder Montfort, whom 
he met near Evesham, in "Worcestershire. A great 
battle was fought there in August, 1265, in which 
Montfort was among the slain, and the king himself, 
who had been compelled by Montfort to take his 
place among the foremost barons, nearly shared his 
fate, but was saved by his son. 

Montfort's death was deeply lamented by the people, 
who honoured him as the champion of their liberties. 
His followers were one after another forced by Prince 
Edward to submission, though hostilities still con- 
tinued for two years. The king's authority was now 
fully re-established ; the Oxford Statutes were abo- 
lished, and the property of the rebellious barons was 
declared to be forfeited. The castle of Kenilworth did 
not surrender until December, 1266, and then Edward 
granted to the vanquished, terms known as the Dictum 
of Kenilworth, whereby they obtained permission to sue 
for pardon and to recover their estates on payment of 
certain sums of money. Llewellyn, a prince of Wales, 
who had sided with the barons, now also obtained a 
peace, but had to swear fealty to the English king, 
and to pay 25,000 marks, 

The remaining period of Henry's reign passed away 
in peace. In 1270, prince Edward, with the earl of 
Gloucester and other restless spirits, joined Louis IX. 
in his crusade against the infidels. The prince was 
still in the East when his father died in November, 
1272. Henry's reign is that of a weak and un- 
scrupulous ruler ; he scarcely ever took an oath which 
he did not violate ; his partiality for foreigners, his 
relation to the j)apacy, and his wars with France and 
his own subjects, led him to grind down his people by 
taxes and imposts. But with all this his reign is one 



1272— 1307.] EDWARD I. 77 

of the most memorable in English history, because in 
it was laid the foundation of the peoj^le's house of 
representatives, which with few interruptions has 
grown and developed its powers down to the present 
day. Further, during Henry's long reign, the Saxon 
and ]S[orman elements of the English population had 
become completely blended into the English nation, 

• 

6. EDWARD I, 1272—1307 

Immediately after the death of Henry III., the barons 
assembled in London, proclaimed Edward king, took 
the oath of allegiance to him, and invited him speedily 
to return to England. The kingdom, however, was 
meanwhile placed under the regency of his cousin, the 
earl of Cornwall, the earl of Gloucester, and the arch- 
bishop of York. Edward received the news of his 
father's death at Naples, but remained a whole year in 
Italy and France, and thence proceeded to Flanders, 
where he made some commercial arrangements about 
the export of English wool and the import of Flemish 
cloth. He landed at Dover the 2nd of August, 1274, and 
was crowned at Westminster in December of the same 
year, when he received the homage of Alexander III. 
of Scotland and of the nobles of his realm, with the 
exception of Llewellyn of Wales. 

During his absence the country had not indeed 
been disturbed, but many irregularities had crept into 
the administration, and these he at once rectified, and 
bestowed all his attention upon the internal aifairs of 
the kingdom. The parliament which he assembled in 
1275 passed several measures to establish justice and 
repress crime. In 1278, at a diet held at Gloucester, 
an enquiry by a jury was ordered into the roj^al 
domains and revenues, and the barons were required to 
show what warrant they had for their feudal j)osses- 
sious; the church also had to surrender possessions 
which had been illegally acquired, and in the following 
year the famous statute of Mortmain was enacted, by 
which it was forbidden to make over lands to ecclesi- 
astical bodies, without the king's permission. The 



78 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. VI. 

clergy at first offered some resistance, but when tlie 
king threatened to deprive tliem of all their feudal 
possessions, they yielded. After this, Edward went to 
France, where, having secured Guienne, he renounced 
all claim to Normandy. 

Edward now turned his attention to those parts of 
the island which still enjoyed political independence. 
His great scheme was to conquer Wales and Scotland, 
and to unite them into one compact kingdom. 
Llewellyn, who had shown no friendly dis]30sition at 
Edward's coronation, when summoned to appear before 
the king, refused obedience, in the hope of being able 
to strengthen himself by forming connections with 
France. The king and parliament, in 1276, therefore 
declared him to have forfeited his possessions, and in 
the following year an army marched into Wales. 
Llewellyn being hard pressed threw himself upon the 
mercy of the king, and had to accept a most humiliating 
peace, in which he was permitted to retain only the 
territory round Snowdon, together with Anglesea, as 
a fief of the English crown. But neither he nor his 
people could long endure this humiliation, and even 
his brother David, who had hitherto served under 
Edward against his brother, now joined Llewellyn, 
and the Welsh rose in open rebellion. Edward 
marched against them with an overwhelming force. 
Llewellyn was killed in battle, and David, being 
pursued by the conquerors, was at last betrayed into 
the hands of his enemies. He was found guilty of 
high treason, and put to death in a most barbarous 
manner. Wales was now incorporated with England, 
and divided into counties and hundreds, whereby 
peace and self-government were to some extent secured 
to the inhabitants in the same way as in England. 
While Edward was staying in the conquered country, 
a son (afterwards Edward II.) was born to him at 
Carnarvon in 1284, who, when his elder brother died, 
received the title of Prince of Wales, so that the AYelsh 
had at all events a prince of their own, at least in 
name. From that time the direct heir to the English 
crown has always borne the title of prince of Wales. 



1272—1307.] EDWARD I. 79 

Wlien the affairs of Wales were settled, Edward 
again devoted liis attention to the internal affairs of 
his kingdom, and then spent three years abroad, arbi- 
trating in a dispute between the kings of France and 
Arragon concerning the island of Sicily. On his return, 
in 1289, he discovered so mnch corruption in the ad- 
ministration of justice, that he found it necessary to 
dej)ose all the judges except two. The Jews, of whom 
great numbers had come over with William the Con- 
queror, had always been objects of po23ular hatred and 
persecution, especially since the coronation of Richard I. 
Many of them had become very wealthy, whereby the}^ 
excited envy, while the hatred of their religion was 
fanned by the priests and the superstitions of the age., 
Edward I., who had always treated them more harshly 
than his predecessors, in 1290 ordered all the Jews, 
under penalty of death, to leave the country for ever. 

In 1286 Edward's attention had been drawn to Scot- 
land, whose king, Alexander III., died in that ^''ear, 
leaving as his only heir a grand-daughter, Margaret, 
the only child of his own daughter and Eric, king of 
IS^orway. She was then only three years old, and during 
her minority Scotland was governed by six regents. 
Edward, whose heart seems to have been set upon 
gaining possession of Scotland, brought about a be- 
trothal between his eldest son and Margaret, called the 
Maid of Norway ; but on her voyage to Scotland she 
died, and there appeared at once thirteen claimants to 
the Scottish throne, the principal ones being John 
Baliol, Eobert Bruce, and John Hastings, all three 
descendants of David earl of Huntingdon, the brother 
of king Malcolm lY. The Scottish parliament referred 
the decision of the disputed succession to Edward, who 
accordingly proceeded with his barons to Norham 
castle, on the Tweed, to which place he also summoned 
the Scottish parliament. When they were assembled, 
Edward haughtily demanded of them to acknowledge 
him as their feudal superior until a decision should be 
arrived at. The Scotch were not a little astonished 
at such a demand; but, being powerless to resist, it 
was conceded, and the fortresses of the country were 



80 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. YI. 

delivered into liis hands. Tlie commissioners wlio were 
appointed to examine the claims of the competitors 
decided in favour of Baliol. Edward at once sanctioned 
their award, in 1292, and made the new king swear 
fealty to him as his feudal superior. 

Soon after this Baliol was summoned to London to 
answer certain charges brought against him by his 
subjects. Edward treated him with marked haughti- 
ness, apparently for the purpose of driving him into 
open rebellion. About the same time Edward became 
involved in a dispute with the king of France, his 
superior for the duchy of Guienne ; and, as he refused 
to appear, he was declared to have forfeited his feudal 
rights over that duchy, 129i. He now prepared for 
war with France, and Baliol, considering the English 
king's embarrassments a favourable opportunity for 
avenging the indignities he had suffered, entered into 
a close alliance with France, and renounced his alle- 
giance to Edward. As soon as the latter was informed 
of this, he left the war with France to his lieutenants, 
and at once marched to the north, where he took 
Berwick in 1296. The same year a great battle was 
fought at Dunbar, in which the Scotch were defeated 
by Warenne, earl of Surrey, with the loss of 20,000 
men. Baliol, v/ho made his submission, was sent as a 
prisoner to London, and the Scottish barons took the 
oath of allegiance to the conqueror. All the strong 
places of Scotland were entrusted to Englishmen, and 
Warenne was made governor of the whole country. 
Baliol, after being imprisoned in the Tower for two 
years, withdrew to France, where he died. 

Scotland now seemed completely conquered; but the 
reckless tyranny of its rulers soon drove the people 
again into rebellion. Meanwhile the war in France, 
which was carried on with little success, obliged Edward 
to have recourse to heavy demands of money from his 
people. This exasperated all classes of the population, 
and he was compelled to sign a compact, in which ho 
renounced the right to tax his subjects at his own will, 
in 1297, The following year an armistice with France 
was byonght about by the jnecliation of the Pop©, and 



1272—1307.] EDWARD I. 81 

Edward hurried back to England ; for a Scottish knight, 
named William Wallace, had assembled round his 
banner many of the discontented Scots, and had gained 
great renown by his bold and successful exploits. 
AYarenne; who attacked him near Stirling, was utterly 
routed, and obliged to retreat across the border. Ed- 
ward now himself took the field against him with an 
army of 80,000 men. The hostile forces met near Fal- 
kirk, where the Scots were completely defeated, in 1298, 
by the skill and valour of their English opponents. 

AVallace now disappears from the scene of action ; but 
the war was continued under Comyn (a son of Baliol's 
sister Marjory) ; for the nation w^as still bent upon reco- 
vering its independence. In 1303 Comyn defeated the 
English in a battle near Eoslin ; but, as peace was now 
fmally concluded with France, Edward Avas enabled to 
direct all his forces against Scotland, which he tra- 
versed in all directions, and everywhere victorious. 
Gomyn and Bruce, who had in the mean time been 
appointed regents, were in the end forced to stirrender 
at discretion, in 1304. Wallace, v/lio lived in con- 
cealment, was treacherously delivered into the king's 
hands by John Monteith, and in 1305 was put to death 
in London, in the barbarous manner reserved for those 
guilty of high treason, of which Wallace certainly w^as 
innocent, never having sworn allegiance to Edward. 

Com^m, after the resignation of his uncle Baliol, was 
the legitimate heir to the throne of Scotland ; but there 
was another competitor, in the person of Eobert Bruce, 
grandson of the Kobert Bruce who had claimed the 
crown with Baliol and Hastings. Both of them had 
submitted to Edward, and Bruce had been treated hy 
him with special favour ; but, fearing or mistrusting 
the king, Bruce fled from a council held in London to 
regulate the affairs of the kingdom. On arriving in 
Scotland, he summoned a meeting of nobles at Dumfries 
(1306), where it was resolved to make a fresh effort for 
independence. Bruce having become involved in a 
quarrel with his rival Comyn, stabbed him vvith a 
dagger, and Kirkpatriok, one of his attendants, com- 
pleted th© murder, The bishop of St. Andrews now 



82 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. Yl 

crowned Bruce as Eobert I. of Scotland ; but Edward 
sent a large army, tinder Aymer de Valence, wlio de- 
feated Bruce, and compelled Mm to seek slielter in the 
western islands. All who were directly or indirectly 
concerned in the murder of Comyn were put to death. 
But Bruce, with indomitable perseverance, continued 
the fight, and gained many a victory. Edward now 
determined to put an end to this harassing war, and 
advanced with a strong army as far as Burgh-on-Sands, 
near Carlisle, where he was seized with a fatal disease, 
and died in July, 1S07. 

The reign of Edward I. was a period of growing 
prosperity for England : no king before him had done 
so much to improve the laws and enforce their strict 
observance. He was personally ambitious, bold, and 
energetic; but his conduct towards Wales, Scotland, 
and the Jews was treacherous and wantonly cruel. He 
lacked the generosity which honours valour and bravery 
even in an enemy. 

6. EDWABD n., 1507—1327. 

The rei,<2,n of Edward II. is one of the most unfor- 
tunate in English history. He himself was weak and 
obstinate, and sacrificed the peace and happiness of his 
country to his attachment to unworthy favourites. 
When he ascended the throne he was twenty-three 
years old, and had been accustomed from his child- 
hood to the society of Piers de Gaveston, the son of a 
Gascon knight ; but, as it was found that he exercised 
a bad influence upon the young prince, Edward I., 
shortly before his death, banished him from the country. 
After the father's death, however, Gaveston w^as recalled, 
and honours and estates were lavished upon him. When 
the young king went to France to marry Isabella, 
daughter of Philip IV., Gaveston, being appointed 
regent during the king's absence, behaved with into- 
lerable arrogance and insolence towards the nobles, and 
even invented offensive nicknames for the most illus- 
trious among them. The barons, indignant at such 
conduct, compelled the king to banish his favourite ; 
but, unwilling to give him up entirely, Edward made 



1307—1327.] EDWARD IL 83 

him viceroy of Ireland, and during liis absence tliere 
succeeded in allaying the hatred of some of the nobles 
against him. After making some concessions to the 
discontented barons, he ventured in 1309 to recall his 
favourite once more to his court ; but, instead of being 
more cautious after what he had experienced, Gaveston 
behaved with even more insolence than before. The 
nobles, when summoned to a parliametit at York, refused 
to attend. As the king, however, was anxious to raise 
supplies, he convened in 1311 another parliament, at 
which the barons with their retainers appeared in arms, 
and compelled the king to appoint a committee of peers, 
called the " Ordainers," who were to draw up a series 
of ordinances for the proper government of the realm. 
The principal of these, on the whole wise ordinances, 
were — that no taxes should be levied except those esta- 
blished by ancient usage ; that the Great Charter, and 
all statutes based upon it, should be observed ; that 
parliament should be held once in every year, or twice 
if necessary ; that no war should be entered upon with- 
out the sanction of parliament ; and that all evil coun- 
sellors should be banished. Edward, notwithstanding 
his great repugnance to these ordinances, was obliged 
to sanction them. 

Gaveston, who during these transactions had kept 
in the background, now withdrew to Flanders. A few 
months later, however, he rejoined the king at York, 
and the nobles, finding the king and his favourite in- 
corrigible, now formed a powerful party, under the 
leadership of Thomas, earl of Lancaster, the king's own 
cousin. Edward, unable to resist them, placed his 
friend in the castle of Scarborough. From want of pro- 
visions, Gaveston was obliged to surrender, and, being 
carried to Warwick Castle, he was executed on Black- 
low Hill in 1312. The king at first threatened to 
avenge the deed, but had to suppress his wrath, and to 
grant peace and pardon to the barons. 

Immediately after his accession Edward II. had ad- 
vanced a little way into Scotland, but soon gave up the 
undertaking, and returned to the south. Meanwhile 
Robert Bruce, after many strange wanderings and 



84 HISTOIiY OF ENGLAND. [CiiAP. VI. 

adventures, recovered possession of the whole country, 
v/ith the exception of the castle of Stirling. Edward, 
after having made peace with his barons, determined 
to make a great and final effort against Scotland. He 
invaded the country with an army of 100,000 men, 
while the Scotch had scarcely one-third of this number 
to oppose him. A fierce battle was fought in 1314, at 
Eannockburn, near Stirling, in which Bruce by his skill 
and prudence completely defeated the English, who 
are said to have lost 30,000 men. Edward after this 
meditated a fresh expedition into Scotland ; but, finding 
that Lancaster and his party refused to join him, he 
concluded with Bruce a truce for two years. 

Eight years after the death of Gaveston, another 
favourite of the king, Hugh de Spenser, imitating the 
example of his predecessor, provoked the indignation 
of the nobles, who, at a meeting at Westminster, passed 
an ordinance banishing both Spenser and his father, 
1321. The king, exasperated at this proceeding, as- 
sembled an army and marched against Lancaster, who 
was drawing together a large force in the North, and 
entered into an alliance with Scotland. The ro^^al 
army gained a decisive victory at Boroughbridge. 
Lancaster was taken prisoner, hurriedly tried, and 
beheaded at Pontefract in 1322. Many of his followers 
were likewise put to death, while others made their 
escape to the continent. The Spensers, who were now 
recalled, received some of the forfeited estates of the 
nobles. A fresh attempt was then made against 
Scotland. But it ended in a truce being concluded 
for thirteen years, whereby Bruce was virtually recog- 
nised as king of Scotland. 

The last act of this pitiable reign is the saddest of 
all. When Charles lY. of France, after his accession, 
summoned Edward to do homage to him for Guienne 
and settle some differences about that duchy, he sent his 
wife Isabella, 1325. On her arrival in Paris she formed 
connections with some of the followers of Lancaster, 
who had taken refuge there, but more especially with 
young Eoger Mortimer, who became her paramour. 
Both she and the exiled nobles were actuated by their 



1327—1377.] EDWAED III. 85 

common hatred of tlie Spensers. Wisliing to obtain 
possession of lier eldest son, Edward (afterwards 
Edward III.), she requested the king to send him 
over, because her brother, the French king, wished to 
invest him with the duchy of Guienne, which might 
otherwise be lost. Edward did as he was desired ; but 
Avhen he asked her to return, she went to Flanders, and 
without the king's permission, betrothed her son to 
Philippa, the daughter of the count of Holland and 
Hainault. Yfith the assistance of the count she levied 
an army, and accompanied loj the king's own brothers 
and the exiled nobles, landed in Suffolk. The unpopu- 
larity of the king became at once apparent, for the 
queen met with little opposition in her progress, 
Edward fled to Wales while his son was made guardian 
of the kingdom. The two Spensers were taken and 
put to an ignominious death. The king tried to escape 
to Ireland, but was overtaken at Keath Abbey, in Gla- 
morganshire, and conveyed to the castle of Kenil worth. 
A parliament was summoned by the queen, at which a 
series of charges was brought against the king, and a 
deputation Avas sent to him compelling him to sign his 
own abdication, while his son was appointed king in 
his stead. The government, however, was virtually in 
the hands of the queen and her paramour, Mortimer. 
The unhappy king was dragged successively to the 
castles of Corve, Bristol, and Berkeley. In this last 
place he was committed to the charge of two jailors, 
who treated him with the greatest insults and cruelty ; 
find as they could not get rid of him in this way, they 
murdered him by introducing a red-hot iron, through 
a horn, into his bowels. His screams revealed what 
was going on, but no one dared to interfere. This 
horrible murder was perpetrated on the 21st of Sep- 
tember, 1327. 

7. ED%YABD m., 1327—1377. 

When on the deposition of his father, Edward was 
crowned king, he was only fourteen years old ; a regency 
was therefore appointed consisting of a council of twelve, 
headed by Henry, earl of Lancaster, a brother of the one 



86 HISTOKY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. VI. 

who had been executed at Poiitefract, for the sentence 
which had condemned him was annnlled, and all the 
enemies of the Spensers had their rights and possessions 
restored to them. The young king, however, was in 
the power of his mother, Isabella, and her paramour, 
Mortimer. 

The violent deposition of Edward II. and the ap- 
pointment of a boy-king, induced Bruce, of Scotland, 
in violation of the existing truce, to invade and ravage 
England, and he advanced as far as the Tyne. Not- 
withstanding his youth, Edward marched with an 
army against him ; but Bruce avoiding a pitched 
battle retreated, and on the advice of his mother, 
Edward, in 1328, concluded a peace in which the Scotch 
king was relieved of all his feudal duties towards 
England, and became a perfectly independent sove- 
reign. This peace was strengthened by the betrothal 
of David, heir to the Scotch crown, who was then only 
five years old, with Edward's sister, Isabella, a child 
of seven years. Such a peace was of course distaste- 
ful to the English nation, and the earls of Lancaster, 
Kent, and IsTorfolk, believing that it had been brouglit 
about chiefly by Mortimer, formed the determination 
to overthrow the unworthy favourite. But he not only 
forced them to submission, but even ventured to bring 
a charge of high treason against Kent, who was the 
young king's uncle. The nobles were servile enough 
to find him guilty, and Isabella and Mortimer ordered 
him to be executed, in 1330. Mortimer now even went 
so far as to assume all the pomp and state of a king. 
All this was too much for the bold and manly sjiirit of 
Edward, who had already shown signs of unwilling- 
ness to submit to the dictates of the unworthy couple. 
The execution of his uncle roused his deepest indig- 
nation, and on the advice of some nobles, he resolved 
to assmne the reins of government himself. 

Isabella and Mortimer were living at the time in 
the castle of Nottingham, where they were stronglj^ 
protected by mercenaries. Into this castle the king 
and his followers penetrated by a subterraneous pas- 
sage. Mortimer was arrested and carried as a prisoner 



1327—1377.] EDWAEB III. 87 

to London, where lie was 'tried for liigli ireason and 
executed. The queen was henceforth kept in cap- 
tivity for life in Eising Castle, where the king, who, 
after all, conld not forget that she was his mother, 
paid her occasional visits. 

Edward now really began to govern his kingdom, 
the improvement of which engaged his thoughtful 
attention. At the same time he felt a strong desire 
to recover his feudal superiority over Scotland, for 
which a favourable opportunity now seemed to present 
itself. Bruce had died in 1329, and had been suc- 
ceeded by his son, David lY. A few years later some 
English nobles complained that their estates in Scot- 
land had not been restored to them, and instigated 
Edward Baliol, son of John Baliol, to assert his right 
to the crown. The English king at first secretly 
favoured the scheme, and when Baliol, in a war with 
his own countrymen, was obliged to take refuge in 
England, he was openly aided by Edward, to whom 
he promised to accept Scotland as a fief of the English 
crown. Douglas, who had in the meantime been ap- 
pointed regent, was defeated and slain near Berwick 
in 1333. This triumph of his English supporters 
established Baliol on the throne of Scotland ; but when 
it was found out that he had ceded to England some of 
the southern counties, he was obliged to flee from his 
exasperated subjects, and his rival j-ecovered a great 
part of the country. A regular border warfare was 
continued for several years, during which the Scots 
received large supplies from France. This circum- 
stance furnished Edward with an opportunity of carry- 
ing out a plan which he had been harbouring for 
some time, a plan which involved England during 
a whole century in a series of disastrous wars with 
France. 

Charles lY., of France, had died in 1328 without 
leaving male issue, and as by the salic law females 
were excluded from the succession, Philip YL, of 
Yalois, was chosen king. Edward III. had hoped to 
obtain the crown of France for himself, because his 
mother was a daughter of Philip lY. But his claims 



88 HISTOEY OP ENGLAND. [Chap. VL 

were invalid, for as tlie salic law excluded females^ 
it, of necessity, also excluded the descendants of 
females. As Edward at first was unable to make good 
liis claim by force of arms, be consented io do liomage 
to Philip YI. for the duchy of Guienne ; but when 
France openly supported Bruce and his adherents, 
Edward declared his determination to concjuer France, 
and add another crown to that of England. The claim 
of Edward was supported by the emperor of Germany, 
the king of Bohemia, and other continental potentates, 
and having, by heavy taxes, raised a powerful force, 
he sailed in 1338 to Flanders; but as some of his 
supporters fell off, and the French king avoided any 
decisive engagement, this first campaign, which had 
cost enormous sums, had no results. A second expe- 
dition, in 1340, was more successful, for a large French 
fleet was defeated off Sluys with immense loss, and 
Edward might now have carried the war into France, 
but want of means obliged him to conclude a truce for 
two years. 

On his return to England, he found that his heavy 
and arbitrary exactions had created great discontent, 
and the parliament in 1341 carried a measure making 
the great officers of state responsible to parliament. In 
the same year a war of succession broke out in Brittany, 
where the brave countess de Montfort, while her 
husband was a prisoner in Paris, manfully defended 
his cause. Edward hastened to her assistance, because 
her husband had done homage to him as king of 
France. This led to a Avar between Edward and the 
French, which, with some interruptions, continued until 
1345, when the earl of Derby gained a brilliant vic- 
tory over the enemy, though the hostile forces were at 
least six times as numerous as the English. In the 
following year Edward himself went to France and 
took several towns in Normandy, while Philip, with a 
very numerous but ill-disciplined army, was in the 
neighbourhood of Amiens. Edward, well prepared and 
accompanied by his son, Edward, commonly called the 
Black Prince, from the colour of his armour, fought 
and won the famous battle of Crecy in August, 1346. 



1327—1377.] EDWARD III. 89 

While the battle was raging, and the young prince 
was hard pressed, a messenger asked the king to send 
reinforcements. Edward at once asked, " Is my son 
dead or wounded ?" and when the answer was " Ko," 
the king told the messenger to return and tell the 
prince that he must win his spurs on that day, and 
that no help would be sent while he was alive. The 
flower of the French nobility fell on that day, twelve 
hundred knights and thirty thousand ordinary troops 
covered the field of battle. 

Immediately after this terrible battle Edward pro- 
ceeded to invest Calais, and every effort of Philip to 
relieve it was of no avail. While these things were 
going on in France, David Bruce, at the instigation of 
Philip, had invaded England with fifty thousand men, 
and was ravaging the country in a most ruthlesr:j 
manner. He advanced to the neighbourhood of Dur- 
ham, but Edward's queen, Philippa, sent out a force 
under the command of Percy, who defeated the Scotcli 
at Neville's Cross in 1346, and took the king prisoner. 
David was conveyed to London, but set free the next 
year, on payment of one hundred thousaud marks. 
Meanwhile Edward continued the siege of Calais, and 
it was not till after a heroic defence of eleven months 
that the place surrendered at discretion in August, 
1346. There is a beautiful story connected with this 
surrender. To save the lives of their fellow-citizens, 
six burgesses appeared before Edward with halters 
round their necks offering to die, if he would spare the 
lives of the other citizens. Edward, induced by the 
entreaties of his wife, though with great reluctance, 
pardoned them; a truce was then concluded with 
France, which, with some interruptions, lasted till 
1355. During this interval Philip YI. died, and was 
succeeded by his son John. 

The year 1349 is memorable for a terrible plague, 
called the black death, which, originating in China and 
India, caused most fearful ravages all over Europe ; 
in London alone ujDwards of fifty thousand persons 
died of it. This fearful scourge seems to have induced 
the belligerents to suspend their hostilities, but after 



90 HISTORY Oi^ ENGLAND. [CiiAP. VI. 

tlie expiration of the truce, tlie Black Prince invaded 
and ravaged the south of France, while his father 
advanced with an army from Calais. But the latter 
was soon ohliged to return in order to drive back the 
Scotch, who were again devastating the north of Eng- 
land. The Black Prince met King John and his army 
of sixty thousand men near Poictiers in 1356, and by 
his extraordinary valour and prudence gained a de- 
cisive victory. John himself was taken prisoner, but 
treated with marked respect and courtesy. A truce 
was then made for two years, and John was conveyed 
to London, Avhere he was treated with the same re- 
spectful deference, but had to agree to a humiliating 
peace, which caused great excitement in France. Fresh 
negotiations were commenced, and some acts of hos- 
tility were committed, until, in 1360, the treaty of Bre- 
tigny was concluded, in which Edward III. gave up 
liis claim to the French crown, Normandy, Anjou, 
Maine, and Tourraine, but became the absolute sove- 
reign of Guienne, Gascony, Poitou, and some other 
districts, together with the town of Calais. As the 
French estates refused to ratify this treatj^, John, with 
excellent good faith, delivered himself up as a prisoner 
to the English, and died soon after in London. His 
son and successor, Charles Y,, paid no regard to the 
arrangements of his father. 

The Black Prince, who was keeping his court at 
Bordeaux in great state, out of mere spite against the 
French king, supported a detestable tyrant, Pedro the 
Cruel, against his brother Henry, the two disjDuting 
the succession in Castile. Prince Edivard succeeded in 
establishing Pedro on the throne ; but having to levy 
for this purpose heavy taxes on his subjects, they tried 
to obtain redress by appealing to King Charles. The 
latter, disregarding the treaty of Bretigny, acted the 
part of feudal superior to the prince, and, as the j^rince 
refused to acknowledge him as such, hostilities broke 
out, and the prince assumed the title of king of France, 
1369. From this time the power of the English in 
France declined ; for after a lew jesiYS all their pos- 
sessions in France were lost, except Calais, Bayonne, 



1377—1399.] 



EICHARD II. 



91 



Bordeaux, and a few less important places. Meanwhile 
the Black Prince, disabled by disease, after committing 
an act of the grossest cruelty at Limoges, returned to 




DEATH OF THE ELACK ^RI^"CE. 



England, where he died in 1376. King Edward sur- 
vived his son only one j^ear, having previously declared 
in parliament that he appointed his grandson Kichard 
his successor. He died at Sheen (Richmond) in June, 
1377. 

Edward III. was a ruler of great ability and personal 
virtue ; but towards the end of his life he gave himself 
up to sensual pleasures, and lost much of his popularity. 
His foreign wars procured him great renown, but j)ro- 
duced scarcely any good and permanent result. While 
he was obliged to make heavy demands upon his people, 
they availed themselves of these opportunities for get- 
ting their ancient rights confirmed or acquiring nevf 
ones. Trade and industry made great progress during 
his reign. Foreign artisans, especially Flemish weavers, 
were encouraged to settle in England, where they 
enjoyed the king's special protection. 



8. RICHARD n., 1377—1399. 

Eichard, the son of the Black Prince, and grandson 
of Edward III., was only eleven years old at the death 
of his grandfather. On his arrival in London he was 
received with enthusiasm, owing partly to the renown 



92 HISTOEY OF ENaLAND. [Chap. VI. 

of liis father, and partly to liis own liandsome appear- 
ance. The country had been left weakened and in debt 
hy Edward III., and, the truce with France having 
come to an end, England was threatened both from that 
quarter and fx'om Scotland. In these circumstances, 
a council was appointed by parliament to govern the 
kingdom; but the real power was usurped by two 
ambitious uncles of the young king, the duke of Lan- 
caster, who was very unpopular, and the duke of 
Gloucester. 

The French at once commenced ravaging the English 
coasts, and the Scotch renewed their border raids. 
The funds necessary to repel these enemies had to be 
raised by oppressive taxation, and in 1380 a poll-tax of 
one shilling was imposed upon all persons above the 
age of fifteen. The manner in which one of the col- 
lectors behaved towards the daughter of one Walter, a 
tiler of Dartford (commonly called Wat Tyler), exaspe- 
rated the father so much, that he slew the offender on 
the spot. The tax itself, which fell heaviest on the 
poor, had already excited great discontent ; and when 
the Dartford outrage became known, the people rose in 
arms, making Wat Tyler their leader, and the rebellion 
spread to all the south-eastern counties. Soon a large 
army of the malcontents marched upon London, in 138 1 . 
It assembled on Blackheath, where a priest called John 
Ball proclaimed the equality of all men, asking his 

hearers— ^^ 

'' When Adam delved, aud Eve span. 

Who was then a geutlemau ?" 

The populace of London applauded the rebels, broke 
open the prisons, destroyed the palace of the duke of 
Lancaster, and murdered not only the gentlemen they 
could seize, biit even the Flemish artisans and traders, 
whose prosperity excited the jealousy of the mob. The 
king met the rebels in person. As Wat Tyler was 
speaking to the king, and significantly playing with 
his dagger, the mayor of London, fearing for his sove- 
reign's life, stabbed Wat Tyler, who was finally dis- 
patohed by one of Eiehard's attendant^g. This act might 
nciY© led to Y^y Beriou^ oonsequeneas ; but they wers 



1377—1399.] RICHABD II. 93 

avoided by tlie king granting -the 'demands of the in- 
surgents. These were — the abolition of villeinage, or 
slavery ; fixed rents, in place of compulsory service ; the 
free exercise of trades ; and a general pardon. Eicliard 
not only promised to comply, but declared that he 
would be their leader.' The rebels were then induced 
to disperse, and the king at once assembled a large 
force, and ordered a great man}^ of the insurgents to 
be executed. When the insurrection was completely 
crushed the king got parliament to annul the con- 
cessions he had made. Richard thus at once displayed 
courage, weakness, and dishonesty, and parliament 
justly charged him with having caused the insurrection 
by mismanagement and by oppressing the poor. 

The war against France was carried on in the mean 
time without any noteworthy results. The Scotch 
were punished for their inroads by Eichard himself 
taking the field against them with a large force, burn- 
ing Edinburgh, Perth, and several other places, while 
the Scotch retreated before him, without offering any 
resistance. 

As the king advanced in age his conduct did not 
show that firmness and decision which had been ex- 
pected of him, and he allowed himself to be guided by 
two insolent favourites — Michael de la Pole, a foreigner, 
whom he created earl of Suffolk and chancellor, and 
Robert de Vere, whom he made marquis of Dublin. 
This step rendered the king so unpopular that, under 
the influence of the duke of Gloucester, parliament 
obliged him to give up Suffolk, and appoint a regency, 
with Gloucester at its head. Eichard^ mortified at this, 
privately consulted the judges, who gave it as their 
opinion that the regency was illegal, and that those 
who had forced him to sanction it were guilty of high 
treason. When Gloucester was informed of this, he had 
the judges seized, arraigned them for high treason, and 
had two of them executed. The two favourites made 
their escape in 1388, In this same year a battle was 
fought against the Scotch at Otterboiirnej which iB 
celebrated in the ballad of Chevy Chase. 

Ill May, 1389, Itiohard openly declared that he was 



9i HISTORY 0^ ENGLAND. [CiiAP. YI. 

now old enoTigli to manage tlie aifairs of the kingdom. 
He took the reins of government into his own hands, 
hut did not venture upon any violence against Glou- 
cester ; and for a time the troubles of the kingdom were 



EATTLS OF OTTEaBOTJRNE, 



somewhat lulled by the return to England of John of 
Gaunt, the fourth son of Edward III., who had been 
engaged in a contest for the crown of Castile. Eicliard's 
first wife, Anne of Bohemia, died in 1394. The truce 
with Erance, which had been renewed from time to 
time, was now prolonged for twenty-five years, and 
Eichard confirm 3d the peaceful relation by marrying 
Isabella, daughter of the Erench king, a child only 
seven years old. He now resolved to show that he 
really was sovereign, and ordered the arrest of Glou- 
cester, who seems to have been intriguing to recover 
his influence. He was carried to Calais, where he was 
secretly assassinated in 1397. Several other great nobles 
also were executed or banished. In these proceedings 
the king was supported by his uncles, the diikes of 
York and Lancaster, The parliament, having done 
away with the council of regency, submissively ratified 
all his acts. His power now seemed to be firmly esta- 
blished, Elowever, things turned out very differently. 



1377—1399.] RICHARD II. 95 

Two great nobles, Henry, earl of Derby, and the earl of 
Nottingliam, who bad formerly been among the king's 
opponents, had become reconciled to him ; and Eichard, 
professing to be perfectly satisfied with their conduct, 
created the former duke of Hereford and the latter duke 
of Norfolk. Neither, however, trusted the king ; and 
Norfolk once expressed his feeling of insecurity to 
Hereford, who himself repeated the words to the king, 
though, when charged with it, he denied having done 
so. The dispute of the two dukes was to be decided b}^ 
single combat, in which God was supposed to give the 
victory to the righteous. But when the combatants 
were ready the king stepped in, forbade the fight, and 
banished Norfolk for life and Hereford for ten years. 
Richard thus got rid of his most dreaded opponents, 
and now wielded almost absolute power. Hereford, by 
his father's death, became duke of Lancaster, but was 
not allowed to take possession of his father's estates. 
Just at this time Eichard had gone to Ireland to chastise 
a party of Irish who had murdered his cousin Eoger, 
earl of March, the presumptive heir to the English 
crown. Hereford, hearing of the king's absence, and 
knowing the prevailing discontent, landed with a small 
force in Yorkshire. He was at once joined by the earls 
of Northumberland and Westmoreland, and soon found 
himself at the head of an army of 60,000 men. When 
at length he was also joined by his uncle, the duke of 
York, who acted as regent in Eichard's absence, he was 
in reality master of the situation. When Eichard heard 
of these things he hastened back from Ireland, but was 
taken prisoner, forced to abdicate, and lodged in the 
Tower. Parliament assembled at Westminster in 1399, 
and declared him to have forfeited the crown, and Lan- 
caster in an elaborate speech set forth his claims to. 
it. The parliament, which was wholly on Lancaster's 
side, readily supported them, and Henry of Lancaster 
ascended the throne. The same parliament also annulled 
all the acts of Eichard, and ordered him to be imprisoned 
in a safe place. Early in the year 1400 the news came 
to London that he had suddenly expired in the castle 
of Pontefract. Whether he died a natural death or was 

G 



96 HISTOBY OF ENGLAND, [Chap. VII. 

got rid of by assassination is uncertain. Some maintain 
that lie escaped, and lived for many years afterwards in 
Scotland. 

Eicliard left no cliildren. He was a man of an ex- 
citable temperament, and was in turns indolent and 
violent. When lie liad his own way, he became a 
despot, and, if he had had the power, he might have 
destroyed the liberties which his subjects had gained 
in the course of centuries. His reign, however, is me- 
morable as the period in which John Wicliife, a priest 
at Oxford, proclaimed the fundamental principles of the 
Eeformation. Believing that Christianity ought to be 
based solely upon the Scriptures, he translated them 
into English. After much persecution, he ended his 
life peacefully at Lutterworth, 1385. The influence of 
the papacy in England had been considerably dimi- 
nished even in the reign of Edward III., parliament 
having declared null and void the homage exacted by 
the Pope from King John. In the reign of Pdchard II., 
moreover, there was passed the famous statute out- 
lawing all persons who procured at Eome any transla- 
tions, excommunications, bulls, or other instruments, 
which touched the king, his crown, and realm. During 
this reign also a fuller development of the English Lan- 
guage took place by the translation of the Bible by 
Wicliffe, and the appearance of .the poems of Geoffrey 
Chaucer. During the Plantagenet period we find the 
House of Commons already established, and exercising 
great power by the side of the House of Lords. 



CHAPTER VIL 

THE HOUSE OP LANOASTEE. 

Henry IV, , . . 1399-1413 | Henry V. . . . 1413-1422 
Henry VI. . . . 1422-1461 

1. HEKRY IV., 1399—1413. 

Henry IV. may with justice be called a usurper, for- 
the rightful heir to the throne was Edmund, earl of 
March, great-grandson of Lionel, the second son of 



1399—1413.] HENRY lY. 97 

Edward III. Although, therefore, the people in 
London rejoiced at his accession, still the justice of 
his claims was not universally recognised either at 
home or abroad. In England a conspiracy of several 
nobles was formed against him, but the treachery of 
the earl of Eutland saved the king, who ordered the 
other conspirators to be executed. Charles VI. of 
France, indignant at the deposition of Eichard, his 
son-in-law, was likewise assuming a hostile attitude ; 
but war was averted, though the coasts of England 
were ravaged by the French for some time. A really 
formidable insurrection broke out in Wales, headed by 
Owen Glendower, who had been attached to Eichard II., 
and for that reason had been deprived of a portion of 
his estates. This man, who claimed to be descended 
from the ancient kings of Wales, roused the spirit of 
his countrymen, and placing himself at their head, 
defeated the forces sent against him, and made 
Edward Mortimer, uncle of the earl of March, his 
prisoner. Henry made an unsuccessful attempt to 
retrieve this disaster, though he was probably glad to 
get rid of Mortimer, who had married a daughter of 
the earl of Northumberland. When the latter wished 
to ransom his son-in-law, the king refused his per- 
mission. These things happened during the first two 
years after Henry's accession. 

Meanwhile Henry Percy, called Hotspur, a son of 
the earl of Northumberland, had gained a victory 
over the Scotch, whose leader, Douglas, with many 
other nobles, fell into his hands in 1402. The king 
forbade Hotspur to receive a ransom for them, and 
thereby exasperated that powerful family against 
himself. The three Percys, the earl of Northumber- 
land, the earl of AVorcester, and Hotspur, together 
with Scrope, archbishop of York, now formed an 
alliance with Owen Glendower against the king. 
Douglas and his friends were then liberated on con- 
dition of their joining the confederates against Henry. 
While on their march to Wales with twelve thousand 
men they fell in with King Henry near Shrewsbur}-, 
where a most bloody battle was fought. Hotspur was 



98 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. VII. 

killed, and Worcester and Douglas were made prisoners, 
wlierenpon their army dispersed, 1403. Worcester 
was belieaded on tlie spot, but Douglas was spared, 
and Northumberland, who had not been able to take 
part in the battle, was pardoned. Owen G-lendower, 
however, held out, being assisted by French auxiliaries, 
and the war against him was continued for many years. 

Two years later, 1405, Northumberland and his 
followers renewed the rebellion with the view to gain 
the English crown for the earl of March; but the 
enterprise failed ; Northumberland fled into Scotland, 
while Archbishop Scrope and others were beheaded. 
In a third attempt, in 1407, Northumberland was slain 
in Yorkshire, near Tadcaster. In 1405, Prince James, 
son of Eobert III. of Scotland, while on a voyage to 
Trance, was intercepted by Henry, ^and kept as a pri- 
soner at Windsor for nearly twenty years. 

Towards the end of his reign, Henry became 
involved in a war with France, in which his second 
son, the duke of Clarence, laid waste some provinces of 
that country. But he stopped his ravages on the 
receipt of nine thousand crowns. During the last 
years of his life the king suffered much from disease, 
and perhaps also from remorse at the crimes he had 
committed for the purpose of securing his crown. He 
died in London in 1413, leaving four sons and two 
daughters. Henry's position throughout his reign 
was one of great difficulty, but he maintained it with 
great ability, though not without much cruelty, for "he 
unrelentingly ordered his vanquished enemies to be 
executed; and his persecution of the sect called 
Lollards was tliQ first in which in England heretics 
were burned alive. His religious notions were of a 
very narrow and bigoted kind, and he was more 
concerned about the worldly prosperity of the churcli 
than of that of his own subjects. 



2. HENEY v., 1413—1422. 

When Henry V. ascended the throne he was twenty- 
six years old. In his early years he had greatly 



1413— 1422..] HENEY V» 99 

distinguislied himself in the war against Owen Glen- 
dower and the Percys; bnt this period of activity 
was followed by one of indolence and profligacy, 
caused, it is said, by the jealousy of his father. When, 
however, he was called to the throne, he at once 
became an altered man, and dismissed his disorderly 
companions. On the whole his first acts were charac- 
terised by justice and generosity, for he released the 
earl of March from his confinement, and restored to 
Hotspur's son, Henry, his estates and his rank. He 
was, however, shrewd enough to perceive that his 
right to wear the crown rested on a very feeble 
foundation, and that he must, above all, secure the 
support of the clergy. This he gained by persecuting 
the heretical Lollards, of whom he had shown a bitter 
hatred even "before. Their chief protector. Sir John 
Oldcastle (commonly called Lord Cobham), who had 
been a faithful servant of Henry lY., was locked up in 
the Tower, but having escaped into Wales, he as- 
sembled a large number of followers, and the report 
being spread that a body of them had conspired to 
seize the king, Henry, upon this mere rumour, had a 
large number arrested, and about forty executed in 
1414. Cobham himself found safety in flight, but 
four years later he was captured and condemned as a 
heretic and a traitor. 

After these things all Henry's thoughts seem to 
have been absorbed by the one desire to conquer 
France, the disturbed state of which seemed to afford 
him a favourable opportunity. King Charles VI. being 
found incompetent to govern his kingdom, his brother, 
duke of Orleans, and John, duke of Burgundy, were 
disputing about the regency. Henry of England 
secretly fostered the dispute, and entered into negotia- 
tions with the duke of Burgundy. Having further 
allied himself with the emperor of Germany, the king 
of Arragon, and other princes, he assembled a large 
force at Southampton for the purpose of invading 
France. When the expedition was on the point of 
Starting, Henry heard of the discovery of a formidable 
conspiracy, whose object it was to depose him and raise 



100 HISIOEY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. VII. 

the earl of Marcli to tlie throne. The leaders were 
arrested, liastily tried, and executed, 1415. After the 
short delay caused by these proceedings, he landed 
with his army of about thirty thousand men at 
Harfleur, which was taken after a siege of five weeks. 
But, owing to the heat of the summer, diseases broke 
out among his troops, which reduced them to half 
their original number, so that further undertakings 
became impossible. But Henry, undaunted, determined 
to force his way by land to Calais. When he arrived 
at the banks of the Somme, he found the French army 
drawn up on the plain of Agiiicourt, which arrested his 
progress towards Calais. The enemy's forces were 
four times more numerous than the English, yet in 
the battle which ensued (October, 1485) the English, 
with indomitable courage and steadiness, completely 
routed the French. The victory was decisive : the 
French lost ten thousand men, and among them the 
flower of their nobility. ; while the prisoners amounted 
to fourteen thousand, among whom were the dukes of 
Orleans and Bourbon, and other distinguished nobles. 
The English loss is said to have been very small, but 
the duke of York and the earl of Suffolk were among 
the slain. Henry, without trying to follow up his 
victory, proceeded to Calais, and thence to England, 
Avhere he was received in triumph amid the greatest 
rejoicings, and easily prevailed upon parliament to 
vote large sums of money. 

Meanwhile the feuds between the dukes of Orleans 
and Burgundy continued, and the latter formed an 
alliance with Henry, who, in 1417, set out on a fresh 
expedition to conquer France. He landed in Normandy, 
took and sacked Caen, and then proceeded to Eouen, 
which surrendered in 1418 after a protracted siege. 
Henry demanded of Burgundy the surrender of all the 
provinces ceded to the English in the treaty of 
Bretigny, and the full sovereignty over all his recent 
conquests. While these negotiations were still going 
on, the dukes of Burgundy and Orleans, in sight of 
their common danger, became reconciled, and the 
negotiations were broken oif. When the two dukes 



2413—1422.] HENEY V. lOl 

r 

met at Montereau to devise a plan of action against 
the English, Burgundy was assassinated. Thereupon 
the Queen Isabella with her son, Charles the Dauphin, 
sought Henry's protection; and a few months later, 
1420, the treaty of Troyes was concluded, of which 
the chief articles were, that Henry should marry 
Catharine, the daughter of Charles VI. and Isabella, 
that Charles should retain the title of king of France, 
but that the government of the kingdom should be left 
to Henry, and that on Charles' death the French 
crown should belong to Henry and his heirs for ever. 
France was thus at his feet, and he at once went to 
Paris, where the treaty obtained the sanction of the 
parliament. 

After celebrating his marriage, Henry returned to 
England with his bride. While he was here enjoying 
the height of his popularity, he was informed that his 
brother, the duke of Clarence, had been defeated and 
slain at Beauge, in Anjou, by the Dauphin, supported by 
Scotch auxiliaries, 1421. Henry accordingly hastened 
to France, taking with him James of Scotland, hoping 
thereby to draw the Scotch auxiliaries to his side. 
The plan succeeded to some extent, but those Scotch- 
men who remained faithful to their previous en- 
gagement, when taken prisoners, were treated as 
rebels, which exasperated their countrymen not a 
little. The war with the Dauphin was continued, 
and Henry meant to have headed an army against him, 
but he was suffering from a malad}^ which now assumed 
a serious aspect. It was therefore necessary to carry 
him to Yincennes, where, on feeling his end approach^ 
ing, he assembled his friends, requesting them to take 
care of his infant son, who had been born to him in 
1421 at Windsor. He died August 31st, 1422. Henry 
was an energetic ruler, but unprincipled in his 
ambition, and cruel towards those whom he believed to 
be dangerous to himself. He is often blamed for his 
persecution of the Lollards, but, independently of his 
personal motives, he acted in this matter according to 
the general spirit of the age, and the indiscreet 
conduct of the Lollards themselves contributed not a 



102 HISTORY OF EKGLAND. [Chap. VJI. 

little to provoke it. Popular freedom made some 
progress in his reign, for the petitions of parliament 
(what we now call bills) up to this time had often 
been altered by the king ; henceforth he was obliged 
either to reject them or to accept them in the form in 
which they were brought before him. 



3. HEHBY VI, 1422—1461. 

As, at the time of his father's death, Henry VI. 
was scarcely nine months old, a regency had to be 
appointed both for France and for England. In the 
former country it was offered to, but declined by, the 
duke of Burgundy, and the duke of Bedford, brother of 
Henry V., undertook it, and caused his nephew to 
be proclaimed king of France, while the Dauphin, 
Charles YII., maintained himself in the south, and took 
the title of king, as his father had died a few weeks 
after Henry V. A war between the regent and the 
French king was the natural result. In England the 
duke of Gloucester, a younger brother of Bedford, was 
appointed protector of the kingdom, but his actions were 
controlled by a council of state appointed by parliament. 

Charles VII. had to rely mainly on the national 
feeling of the French, which was not favourable to 
English rule, and on his Scotch auxiliaries. The 
royal party was defeated in two successive campaigns, 
in the latter of which, in 1424, about five thousand 
French were slain. But the importance of these 
victories was much diminished by the conduct of the 
duke of Gloucester, who had married Jacqueline, 
countess of Hainault ; she had left her former husband, 
a cousin of the duke of Burgundy, and the latter 
naturally opposed her and her new husband when 
they claimed the estates of the discarded husband. 
Gloucester, leaving his wife at Mantes, returned to 
England, and here became involved in a quarrel with 
Beaufort, bishop of Winchester, to whom the education 
of the young king of England had been entrusted. 
The affair became so serious that Bedford, in 1425, was 
obliged to come to England for the purpose of effecting 



1422-1461,] HENRY VI. 103 

a reconciliation. Bedford on this occasion, as well as 
in tlie dispute about Hainanlt, beliaved most honour- 
ably, but still Burgundy could no longer heartily 
support the English cause. Charles VII., neglecting 
his opportunities, was attacked by the English in the 
south, which had always supported him. Bedford 
began the campaign, in 1428, by laying siege to 
Orleans, which was conducted by the earl of Suffolk. 
While this Avas going on, the English were victorious 
in some skirmishes outside the town, and it became 
evident that Orleans would not hold out much lono;er. 
Charles was even meditating a retreat, when the city 
was saved by one of the most marvellous events 
recorded in history. 

A peasant girl, Joan Dare (commonly called Joan of 
Arc), of the village of Domremy in Lorraine, had 
conceived the idea that she was destined by Providence 
to free her king and country from the hated foreigners. 
She sought an interview with the king and at once 
recogni^d him in a crowd of surrounding courtiers, 
though she had never seen him before. She told him 
that she had been sent by God to aid him and inform 
him that he should be crowned in the ancient city of 
Eheims. The king consulted his spiritual advisers, 
and as they saw no wrong in his availing himself of 
her services, she was dressed in the armour of a knight, 
and being assisted by able officers, she managed to 
enter the city through the midst of the besiegers in 
1429. Her appearance acted like magic on the spirit 
of the inhabitants, and several successful sallies were 
made. The English, on the other hand, were struck 
with terror, believing her to be a sorceress, and about 
a week after her arrival the siege was raised. The 
French now gained several victories, and Joan per- 
suaded the king to proceed to Eheims. The march 
with twelve thousand men was successfully accom- ^ 
plished, and Charles was crowned at Eheims in the 
ancient fashion, amid the jubilant acclamations of the 
people. The maid of Orleans, as she was called, now 
considering her mission to be accomplished, wished to 
return home, but the king refused to part with so 



104 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. VII. 

valuable an ally. Tlie war was continued, but the 
French avoided any decisive engagements. At last, in 
a sally from Compiegne, 1430, the maid was taken 
prisoner by the duke of Burgundy, who delivered her 
Up to Bedford. She was tried for sorcery by the 
bishop of Beauvais, who was entirely devoted to the 
English interest. She was accordingly found guilty, 
and burned alive as a witch in the market-place at 
Eouen, in 1431, and her ashes were thrown into the 
Seine. 

From this moment fortune forsook the English ; the 
war still lingered on for some time, until, in 1432, 
events occurred which gave a new turn to affairs. 
The alliance between Burgundy and the English had 
been lukewarm ever since Gloucester's marriage with 
Jacqueline. The duchess of Bedford, a sister of 
Burgundy, died, and her husband, a few months later, 
married Jacquetta of Luxemburg, of which country 
Burgundy was the lord superior. As his consent to 
the marriage had not been asked, he felt annoyed, and 
resolved to support the legitimate king, Charles VII. 
After some negotiations, a congress was held at Arras, 
1435, at which the English refused the offer to hold 
Xormandy and Aquitaine as fiefs from the French 
crown; but, as Bedford died in the same year, the 
treaty was signed. The death of the able regent of 
France was a severe blow to Henry. His successor 
was Eichard, duke of York. As the disputes between 
Gloucester and the bishop of Winchester prevented 
reinforcements being sent to France, Charles, in 1436, 
was enabled to enter Paris, so that the restoration to 
his ancestral throne was now complete. The war, 
however, still went on until 1444, when a truce was 
concluded which lasted till 1450. During this truce, 
the earl of Suffolk negotiated a marriage between 
Henry and Margaret of Anjou, a niece of the French 
king. Notwithstanding this marriage the French 
invaded Normandy and conquered the whole of it. 
Cherbourg and Bayonne also fell into theii* hands, and 
one place after another was lost until, in 1453, nothing 
was left to the English but Calais. 



1422—1461.] HENRY VI. 105 

If we now turn our attention to tlie state of England 
during these Frencli wars, we find tliat tlie country- 
was suffering from the jealousy and quarrels hetween 
the Protector and the bishop of Winchester, which 
had been kept somewhat in check so long as Bedford 
was alive. The bishop, who had in the meantime 
become cardinal, had gained the uj)per hand, and even 
went so far as to accuse the wife of his rival of sorcery 
and treason, for which she was sent as a prisoner to 
the Isle of Man. Gloucester, who felt this blow most 
keenly, took his revenge two years later by bringing 
the charge of ti'eason against the cardinal. The latter, 
however, answered it by producing a general pardon 
from the king. Queen Margaret, an ambitious and 
imperious woman, completely governed her husband, 
and exerted all her influence in favour of the cardinal 
and the earl of Suffolk. The latter, dreading Gloucester 
as a dangerous opponent, caused the parliament, in 
1447, to accuse him of treason. He was found guilty 
and thrown into prison, where, after a few days, he 
was found dead in his bed. Two months later the 
cardinal also died, and was succeeded, as minister, by 
Suffolk, now the principal favourite of the queen. 

The house of Lancaster had now lost its chief 
supports, and the king himself had neither inclination 
nor capacity to govern. Suffolk was universally hated, 
because he was believed to be the cause of the loss of 
the French possessions, and to be concerned in the 
sudden death of Gloucester. But no one detested him 
more than the duke of York, who was beginning to 
think of claiming the English crown, as Henry VI. 
was as yet without issue. At a parliament held in 
1450, the Commons brought several accusations against 
Suffolk, and even the court itself was obliged to 
consent to his being banished for five years. But 
the indignation against him was irrepresf?ible, and 
while he was crossing over to Calais he was murdered 
by a common seaman, who was never tried or punished 
for it. 

Soon after this, news reached England of another 
defeat in France, and the indignation at the mis- 



106 niSTORY OF EKGLAND. [Chap.VIL 

management of the war, wliicli had cost so much 
blood and money, at last manifested itself in an open 
rebellion in Kent, which was headed by an Irishman, 
Jack Cade, who pretended to be a descendant of 
Mortimer. At the head of twenty thousand men he 
entered London, and put to death many men of rank 
and eminence, who were regarded as the cause of the 
people's losses and sufferings. The rebels demanded 
that the duke of York, who was very popular on 
account of his mild disposition, his courage, and 
ability, should be entrusted with the management of 
aifairs. But as Jack Cade by his arbitrary proceedings 
excited the alarm of the Londoners, they obliged him 
and his followers to dej)art, and the promise of a 
general amnesty induced them to disperse. But 
notwithstanding this promise, Cade was put to death 
in Sussex. The duke of York, knowing the weakness 
of the government, came across from Ireland with 
four thousand of his vassals, when the plan of appoint- 
ing him as successor to Henry was already talked of. 
Soon after the suppression of the rebellion, the duke of 
Somerset, the great grandson of John of Gaunt, who 
had just lost Normandy, returned to England, and a 
feud broke out between him and York. When, in 
October, 1452, a son was born to Henry, while the 
king was suffering from a severe malady, Somerset 
was arrested, and parliament declared York protector 
of the kingdom. When the king recovered, he re- 
instated Somerset and dismissed York ; the latter then 
took up arms and met the duke of Somerset near 
St. Albans, in 1455, where a great battle was fought, 
in which Somerset was killed and King Henry 
wounded. But Henry pardoned the victor and made 
him regent, as he was again attacked by his malady. 
On his recovery York again retired from his functions, 
and Henry, perceiving the ill-feeling subsisting between 
the houses of Somerset and York, resolved to bring 
about a reconciliation. A meeting took place in 
London, at which the earl of Warwick, governor of 
Calais, was also present ; and a reconciliation was 
effected. No sooner had Warwick returned to Calais 



1422—1461.] HENRY VI. 107 

than he committed an outrage for which he was called 
to account by the king. An attempt was made to 
assassinate Warwick, who was an active partizan of 
York; and as the queen was suspected of having 
planned the deed, York again prepared for war. The 
queen, with a numerous army, met him near Ludlow, 
] 459 ; that of York was only one fourth of that of the 
queen, and being, moreover, deserted by one of his 
best officers, his little band dispersed, and he fled into 
Ireland, while Warwick returned to Calais. The 
parliament, soon after this triumph of the royal arms, 
attainted York and all his followers. Upon this, 
AVarwick returned to England, and soon assembled a 
considerable force with which, near Northampton, he 
defeated the royal army and took the king prisoner, 
in 1460. The queen, with her son, Edward, escaped 
into Scotland. The duke of York now returned from 
Ireland and openly claimed the crown, to which he 
had no more, in fact fewer, claims than the house of 
Lancaster, which had possessed it for nearly sixty 
years. Parliament, however, decided that Heury 
should remain king, but that he should be succeeded 
by the duke and his heirs, and that in the meantime 
the administration of the kingdom should be committed 
to the duke. The rights of Prince Edward were 
entirely disregarded. Queen Margaret, naturally 
dissatisfied with this arrangement, collected in the 
north of England a large force of men faithful to their 
king, and attacking York's army near Wakefield 
(1460), utterly defeated her enemy in less than half 
an hour. York fell in the battle, and one of his sons 
with many other nobles v^as put to death without a 
trial. 

Edward, the eldest son and heir of York, was at 
Gloucester when he heard of his father's death. He 
hastily assembled as large a force as he could, and 
marched towards London, but being followed by 
Jasper Tudor, earl of PemlDroke, he turned upon him, 
and in a sharp encounter defeated him at Mortimer's 
Cross in Herefordshire. Meanwhile the queen advanced 
southward without meeting with any opposition till 



108 HTSTOEY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. VIII. 

slie readied St. Albans. She tliere gained a victory- 
over the Yorkists, who were commanded by Warwick, 
and rescued the king. But as her soldiers were in- 
dulging in plunder and rapine, Edward had time to 
reach London before her arrival. An assembly of 
nobles, prelates, and citizens met, before which he 
charged the king with having broken his engagements, 
and with imbecility ; at the same time he set forth his 
claims to the crown. These claims were admitted by the 
assembly, and in March, 1461, he was proclaimed king 
of England under the name of Edward lY. Henry 
lived ten years after this, but his history during that 
period belongs to the reign of his successor. 

Thus ended the dynasty of Lancaster. JSTotwith- 
standing his childish weakness and his incapacity to 
govern, Henry YI. possessed virtues which have 
endeared his memory to posterity, for he is the founder 
of several colleges both at Oxford and Cambridge, 
which are nobler monuments than the trophies of 
brilliant victories. 



CHAPTER YIIL 

THE HOUSE OF YORK. 

Edward IV.. , . 1461-1483 [ Edward V. . . . 1483-1483 
Bichardni. . . 1483-1485 

1. EDWARD IV., 1461—1483. 

Edward lY., who on his accession was nineteen years 
old, was, as we have seen, the second son of Eichard, 
duke of York, and claimed the throne because he was a 
lineal descendant of Lionel, son of Edward III. ; and 
as his claim was recognised by Parliament, he was 
proclaimed king without hesitation. But the crown 
which had been thus readily conceded to him, had to 
be defended at once, even before his coronation, by 
force of arms ; for the Lancastrian party, led by the 
brave Queen Margaret, had assembled a large force in 



14(31—1483.] EDWABD lY, 109 

Yorksliire, where Edward with little more than forty 
thousand men attacked them. Both parties fought 
with desperate courage, and no quarter was given. 
The contest for a time was undecided, but in the end 
Edward gained the day, and the massacre among the 
vanquished was terrible : thirty thousand dead are 
said to have covered the battle-field. King Henry VI., 
with his wife and son, escaped into Scotland, where 
they met with a hospitable reception, on ceding 
Berwick on Tweed to the Scottish king. Edward now 
returned to London and was crowned. Parliament met 
in November, and saluted him as the true heir to the 
crown, while the Lancastrian kings were declared 
usurpers, and the late royal family and its adherents 
were treated as traitors and deprived of their estates, 
which were given as rewards to Edward's supporters. 
Many executions also took place to strike terror into 
the friends of King Henry. 

Meanwhile Margaret sought the aid of the duke of 
Britanny, and of the wily Charles XI. of France, 
Though scantily provided with men and money, she 
invaded the north-east of England, 1464 ; but her 
army was routed and dispersed by Lord Montacute, a 
brother of Warwick. During her wanderings after 
this defeat, she and her son, it is said, fell into the 
hands of robbers. When she had with difficulty 
escaped from them, she came upon another robber who 
ajoproached her with a drawft sword. Margaret, with 
great presence of mind, courageously said to him, " I 
commit to thee the son of thy king." Disarmed by 
these words the robber not only abstained from 
violence, but conducted the queen safely to her friends. 
She took refuge in France, while Henry YI. found an 
asylum in North Wales. Thence he again proceeded 
to the north of England, where the Lancastrian party 
was, and always had been, strongest. He was accom- 
panied by several exiled nobles, and his force was 
increased by many of the northern barons and Scottish 
phiefs. But, frightened by the approach of Warwick, 
the king fled and concealed himself, until 1466, when he 
was treacherously delivered into the hands of Edward, 



110 HISTORY OF ENaLAND, [CiiAP. VIII. 

wlio for several years kept him as a jprisoner in the 
Tower. 

Edward now enriched his followers with the confis- 
cated estates of the exiled nobles. Notwithstanding 
his irregular and dissolute life, he was very popular 
with the great mass of the people, on account of his 
valour and amiable affability, though he never was 
wanting in energetic measures to maintain law and 
order, and to increase the prosperity of his subjects. 
He strengthened himself by alliances with foreign 
nations, and when he felt himself pretty secure on the 
throne, he gave the reins to his sensual propensities. 
Several plans were formed for his marrying a lady of 
suitable rank, when he became acquainted with 
Elizabeth, the charming young widow of Sir John 
Grey, who had fallen fighting in the ranks of King 
Henry. After a time he married her privately, but 
soon made the step known, and caused her to be 
solemnly crowned. 

This marriage was soon followed by fatal conse- 
quences. Edward conferred extraordinary honours 
and favours upon the relations of his wife, who be- 
longed to the lower aristocracy. This exasperated, 
not a little^ the old and powerful aristocratic families, 
such as the Nevilles, to whom Edward's own mother 
belonged. Thus Elizabeth's father, Eichard Woodville, 
was made earl of Elvers, and her sisters were given in 
marriage to dukes and earls. The earl of Warwick 
especially felt hurt at the king showering his favours 
upon an inferior order, all of whom, moreover, belonged 
to the Lancastrian party. Even the king's - own 
brother, George, duke of Clarence, who was married to 
a daughter of Warwick, sided with the earl, a man 
more powerful and influential almost than the king 
himself. 

About this time the country people in the north 
rose in arms against the collectors of an ancient tax, 
levied for the benefit of the clergy. The insurgents, 
though checked by Warwick's brother, the earl of 
Northumberland, soon acquired a force of sixty thousand 
men, led by relatives of Warwick himself, and their 



14G 1—1483.] EDWAHD IV. Ill 

cry now was, that the king should remove the Wood- 
villes and draw to himself the royal princes and 
the ancient nobility. King Edward once more en- 
deavoured to come to an understanding with Warv/ick 
and Clarence, but neither of them was willing to 
become reconciled, and Warwick even incited the 
people of Kent to rebellion. The king's army was 
defeated by the rebels near Banbury, 1469, where the 
queen's father and brother were taken and beheaded. 
After a time, tolerable terms were established between 
the king, Warwick, and Clarence ; but the reconcilia- 
tion was not honest, and in 1470 the king with 
difficulty escaped from an attack of Clarence. Early 
in the same year an insurrection broke out in Lincoln- 
shire, which demanded the restoration of Henry YI. 
Edward, with his usual energy, quickly took up arms 
and subdued the rebellion, but when it was found out 
that it had been excited by Warwick and Clarence, 
both fled into France, where Queen Margaret came to 
an understanding with Warwick, who promised to 
effect the restoration of Henrj^, and gave his daughter, 
Anne, in marriage to Prince Edward who was now 
seventeen years old. King Edward, meanwhile, 
abandoned himself to his usual pursuits, and treated 
the suggestion of a possible invasion of England with 
ridicule. But while he was engaged in quelling an 
insurrection in the north, Warwick landed with a fleet 
at Dartmouth, and issued a proclamation in which he 
demanded the restoration of Henry VI. Edward not 
being sufiiciently prepared to meet the enemy, sought 
the protection of his brother-in-law, Charles the Bold 
of Burgundy. 

Warwick, who had advanced without opposition, 
now entered London, October, 1470, brought the 
almost imbecile Henry out of the Tower, and caused 
him to be proclaimed king. The dissatisfaction with 
Edward's rule had become very general, and Warwick 
and the restored king were received by the people with 
great enthusiasm. King Edward, finding that he 
could not rely on his troops, fled into Flanders, and all 
the exiled Lancastrian nobles had their honours and 

H 



112 HISTORY OF ENGLAND, [Chap. YIII. 

estates restored to tliem. Tins revolution was effected 
without bloodshed, and tlie new , government was 
established without difficulty. Warwick and Clarence 
were appointed protectors of the kingdom during the 
minority of Prince Edward. 

Edward IV., who amid all his debaucheries never 
lost his energy, had obtained the secret support of 
Charles the Bold, and with a sma,ll force landed at 
Eavenspur, 1471, proclaiming that he had come only 
to claim his family estates. He advanced as far as 
Coventry, where he was suddenly joined by his 
brother, Clarence, who had become dissatisfied with 
the arrangements made with Queen Margaret. Being 
thus strengthened, Edward resumed the title of king, 
and, accompanied by his brother, proceeded to London, 
v/here a numerous party was still attached to him. 
He entered the city without hindrance, and Henry VI. 
was delivered up to him. Meanwhile Warwick also 
advanced, but coming too late, he met his enemies near 
Barnet, where a great battle was fought, in which 
Edward was victorious, and Warwick, whom the 
people had called " king maker," was among the slain. 
Edward IV. returned to London on the same day, and 
poor Henry VL was taken back to the Tower. On 
the same day, also, Margaret, with her son, landed at 
Weymouth with some French troops, and took up a 
strong position near Tewkesbury; here the brave 
queen was attacked by Edward and completely de- 
feated, May, 1472. Edward raged with merciless 
cruelty against the vanquished, and had Prince Ed- 
ward barbarously murdered before his own eyes. 
Margaret was dragged forth from a convent, where 
she had taken refuge, and conveyed to the Tower. A 
few daj^s later, Edward entered London in triumph, 
and on the following morning Henry VI. was found 
dead in his bed, having probably been murdered, 
perhaps by Edward's brother, Eichard, duke of 
Gloucester, The male line of the house of Lancaster 
was now extinet, and its surviving fidends were dis- 
persed and attainted. The kingdom mig;ht now have 
©njoyad a period of peaoe^ but quarrels broke out 



1483—1483.] EDWARD Y. 113 

between Edwarcrs two brotliers, Clarence and 
Gloucester, about tbe inheritance of Warwick, each 
having married a daughter of the earl. The dispute 
was at last settled by the estates being divided between 
the two. But a fresh war with France was a more 
serious affair ; it was provoked by Edward demanding 
the French crown as belonging to him by inheritance. 
In making this claim he relied on the support of 
Burgundy ; but when, in 1475, he invaded France, he 
found himself disappointed, and as Louis XI. was 
afraid of war with England, negotiations were com- 
menced and a treaty was concluded at Pecquigni, in 
which Louis engaged to pay to Edward 75,000 crowns 
at once, and an annuity of 50,000 ; Queen Margaret, 
moreover, was to be ransomed for 50,000 crowns. 
Peace was thus restored, and Edward now again 
indulged his usual passions. He had for some time 
been alienated from his brother Clarence, and at last, 
on some frivolous j)retext, brought against him the 
charge of treason. The subservient parliament found 
him guilty, and Clarence was imprisoned in the Tower. 
Ten days later his death was announced, and it was 
rumoured that he had been drowned in a butt of 
malmsey, February, 1478. 

In 1480, a war broke out with Scotland, which had 
been in a distracted state ever since the captivity of 
James, who had been liberated by Bedford in 1424. 
Border raids of no great importance had of late been 
rather frequent, but in 1482 the duke of Albany, at 
the instigation of Edward IV., rose against his brother, 
James III., and offered, if raised to the throne, to hold 
Scotland as a fief of England. But the rebellion 
ended in a reconciliation between the Scottish princes. 
A year after this, Edward lY. died, April 9, 14B3, 

2. EDWAED V„ 1483—1483, 

Edward Y., the eldest son of Edward IY„ was only 
hi Mb thirteenth year when his fethar died. His 
i-eign, if w© may so call its extended from th© 0tli of 
April to the 22nd of June, 1483, Bichard, duke of 



114 



HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 



[Chap. VIIL 



Gloucester, had been recommended by tlie late king as 
regent, but it was suspected tliat tlie queen-motber, 
Elizabeth, was seeking to secure to herself and her 
relatives supreme power. It now became evident how 
deeply rooted was the ill-feeling between the great 
houses of the old nobility and the lower nobles, who 
were represented by the Woodvilles. The queen's 
schemes were thwarted by Lord Hastings, the most 
conspicuous among the enemies of the Woodvilles. 
The young king was at Ludlow, under the care of 




THE TO"U'ER OF LONDON. 



Earl Elvers, who was ordered by the queen to escort 
him to London. At Stony Stratford they met Hastings 
and the dukes of Gloucester and Buckingham, who 
arrested the king's escort, and a few days later ordered 
them to be executed. The young king was carried to 
London and lodged in the Tower. When the queen 
heard of this, she, with her younger son, Eichard, duke 
of York, took refuge in the sanctuary at Westminster. 
The duke of Gloucester, on his arrival in London, was 
appointed protector by a great council, and Bucking- 
ham was richlv rewarded for his services. The coro- 



1483—1485.] illCHAKD III. 115 

nation of the king was fixed for tlae 22nd of June. 
Hastings, who had expressed his suspicions about the 
protector's ultimate designs, was accused of high 
treason and beheaded. His suspicions, however, were 
only too well founded, for a story, probably suggested 
b}^ the protector, was spread abroad that Edward IV., 
before marrying Elizabeth Woodville, had been married 
to another lady, so that his sons by Elizabeth were 
illegitimate. A clergyman, moreover, was ordered to 
preach at St. Paul's on the subject. When public 
opinion was thus prepared, Buckingham prevailed 
upon the Londoners to offer the crown to the protector, 
Eichard, duke of Gloucester, who, after a feigned 
reluctance, accepted it. 

The young king had been kept a prisoner in the 
Tower from the day of his arrival in London, and the 
general belief is, that he and his younger brother, 
Eichard, duke of York, were murdered by the order 
of their uncle, who had ascended the throne as 
Richard III. 



EICHARD m., 1483—1485. 

Eichard HI., who thus marked his accession by a 
deed of blood, was in his thirty-third jesn'. The 
friends who had aided him were richly rewarded, but 
he left the widows of his former enemies, Eivers and 
Hastings, in the possession of their property. After he 
and his queen, Anne, the second daughter of Warwick, 
had been crowned, he made a progress through the 
country, and caused his parliament, in 1484, to enact 
several useful laws relating to the administration of 
I'ustice and the interests of commerce. But insurrec- 
tions broke out in several quarters. One of them was 
even joined by his former supporter, Buckingham. 
The object of this insurrection was to raise Henry, 
earl of Richmond, a descendant of John of Gaunt, to 
the .throne. Eichard, on hearing of this, offered a» 
reward for the apprehension of the leaders. Eichmond, 
who was staying in Britanny, found it impossible to 
land in England, and Buckingham, having been 



116 HISTORY 01? ENGLAND. [Chap. IX, 

betrayed; was executed at Salisbury without a trial ; 
wliile most of bis associates escaped to tbe Continent. 

Not long after the suppression of this revolt, 
Eichard's son, Edward, and the queen died, whereupon 
he declared his nephew, the earl of Lincoln, his 
successor. Meanwhile Eichmond, not venturing to 
come to England, obtained from Charles VIII. of 
France permission to collect a force for the purpose of 
invading England. He conducted these preparations 
with vigour and energy, and in August, 1485, landed 
at Milford Haven. Richard, on the other hand, 
trusting to the fidelity of his nobles, was ill-prepared. 
Eichmond, therefore, was enabled to march unopposed 
through Wales, and met the king's army at Bosworth. 
Two powerful nobles, with their men, at once deserted 
to Eichmond, and Eichard, on seeing himself betrayed, 
furiously dashed at his enemy, whom he saw at a 
distance, but he was overpowered by numbers, re- 
ceived several wounds, and was killed. Eichmond was 
at once ]«)rocl aimed king as Henry VII. 

Eichard was indeed guilty of acts of gross cruelty, 
but he hardly deserves to be classed among royal 
monsters. He was of the same passionate character as 
his brother, but did not possess his amiable and conde- 
scending affability. His legislative and administrative 
measures are deserving of high praise. 



CHAPTEE IX. 

THE HOUSE OF TUDOR. 



Henry VII . . 1485—1509 
Henry VIII. . . 1509—1547 



Mary .... 1553—1558 
Elizabeth . . . 1558—1603 



Edward VI. . . 1547—1553 

1. HEHEY Vn., 1485—1509. 

Henry VII. had been proclaimed king on the battle- 
field of Bosworth, and his accession put an end to the 
long and sanguinary wars between the houses of 
Lancaster and York, or the Eed and White Eoses, as 



MS5— 1509.] HENEY VIL ll7 

they are commonly called. Legal claims to the 
throne he had none : his descent from John of Gaunt 
gave him no right, as the nnion from which he sprang 
was illegitimate. He had, in fact, risen to the throne 
by the right of conquest, but did not like to lay stress 
upon it, and in order to strengthen his position he 
resolved to marry Elizabeth of York, the daughter of 
Edward IV., who had a real claim to the succession. 
It was this union between the houses of Lancaster and 
York that induced parliament to enact that the in- 
heritance of the crown should be, and remain, with 
Henry and the lawful heirs of his body. The marriage 
took place early in 1486, amid great rejoitjings of the 
people, who believed that at length a complete peace 
between the two contending parties was established. 

Had Henry acted discreetly, he might have realised 
that belief, but, unfortunately, he lost no opportunity 
of showing his aversion to some of the Yorkists, and 
this gave rise to several insurrections which disturbed 
his reign. One of these occurred only a few months 
after his marriage, and was attempted by Lord Lovel 
and a few other nobles; but when the royal troops 
marched against them they dispersed, and Lovel fled 
into France. The next year, 1487, a more dangerous 
insurrection broke out. Lambert Simnel, who was 
educated at Oxford, by a priest called Simons, was 
persuaded by him to represent himself as Earl Warwick 
(son of the duke of Clarence, brother of Edward IV). 
The youth went to Ireland, which V\^as always favour- 
able to the house of York, and accordingly welcomed 
the pretender as the undoubted heir to the throne. 
Simnel was actually crowned at Dublin as Edward VI., 
and was soon surrounded by a large number of 
followers, among whom were Lord Lovel, the earl of 
Lincoln, and two thousand soldiers furnished him by 
Margaret of Burgundy, the sister of Edward IV. The 
insurgents landed on the coast of Lancashire and 
advanced towards Newark, hoping that during their 
progress their ranks would be swelled by other 
Yorkists But in this they were disappointed, and 
Henry meeting them at Stoke, in Nottinghamshire, 



lis HISTORY OP EKaLAND. [Chap. IX. 

defeated tliem in a liotly contested engagement. Half 
the insurgents and most of their leaders were slain ; 
Lovel escaped, but Simnel and his tutor were* taken 
prisoners and treated with utter contempt, Simnel 
being made a scullion in the king's kitchen, and 
Simons committed to close confinement. Many who 
had been implicated in the insurrection, bought their 
pardon by heavy fines, for Henry's ruling passion was 
avarice. 

The duke of Britanny, the only remaining fief of the 
French crown, was attacked by the king of France, 
and the duke, having some claim upon the gratitude of 
the English king, solicited his assistance. When 
Henry demanded from the northern counties subsidies 
to enable him to carry on the war against France, the 
people rose in arms, but the rising was easily suppressed, 
and the leaders were executed, 1488. Anne, the heiress 
of Britanny, had been asked in marriage for 
Charles VIII., but had been refused. She was now 
besieged in the town of Eennes, and Charles declared 
that she must either be his wife or his prisoner. The 
lady chose the former, and, by her marrying the king, 
Britanny became annexed to the French crown. 
Henry YII., finding himself thus outwitted by the 
young king, availed himself of the opportunity to 
gratify his avarice. He extorted money from his 
subjects by taxes, strangely called " benevolences," 
and obtained large grants from parliament, that he 
might avenge, what he called, the perfidy of the French 
king. But the result showed that his only object was 
to obtain money. After a considerable delay, he 
started on his expedition in October, 1492. From 
Calais he advanced to Boulogne, which he invested 
with a large army. But after a few days a treaty was 
concluded between the two kings at Estaples, in 
which Charles agreed to pay Henry £149,000 by half- 
yearly instalments, on condition that he should with- 
draw his troops from France. Henry thus " made 
profit on his subjects for the war, and u^^on his enemies 
for the peace," 

About the time when this sham war in France was 



1485—1509.] HENEY VII. 119 

on the point of breaking out, l-i92, a young man, 
whose real name is said to have been Perkin Warbeck, 
landed at Cork, declaring himself to be Eichard, duke 
of York, brother of Edward Y., who was believed to 
have been murdered in the Tower with his brother. 
The Irish at once received him with joy, but he had 
not been there long, when Charles YIII. invited him 
to his court and treated him as a real royal duke, hoping 
by his means to obtain more favourable terms from 
Henry. After the conclusion of the treaty of Estaples, 
however, Warbeck was sent away as of no further use. 
Warbeck then claimed and obtained the protection of 
Margaret of Burgundy, and as many of the English 
nobility also began to believe in him. Sir Eobert 
Clifford was sent to inquire into the matter, and his 
report was, that AYarbeck was the veritable duke of 
York. Clifford was now bribed by Henry to reveal 
the names of the English nobles who had supported 
the imposter. In consequence of this, several were 
arrested and some were executed, and among them 
Sir William Stanley, who had saved Henry's life in 
the battle of Bosworth. Wishing to get Warbeck 
removed from Flanders, Henry forbade all commercial 
intercourse with that country ; shortly after this the 
pretender landed with a body of followers at Deal, 
but was beaten off with some loss. He then went to 
Ireland where he was equally unsuccessful, and after 
several attempts to gain a footing in other quarters, he 
went to Scotland where James lY. received him kindly, 
and brought about a marriage between him and 
Catherine Gordon, a near relative of the royal family. 
With the assistance of his new friends he invaded 
England, but as his proclamation that Henry Tudor 
was a usurper made no impression there, the Scotch, 
after committing fearful ravages, returned to the 
north. 

This Scottish inroad afforded Henry a pretext for 
asking a subsidy to carry on war against Scotland. 
The money was readily voted by parliament, but the 
Cornish men refused to pay their share, maintaining 
the northern counties ought to defend their own 



120 History of en^la^'D. [Chap. ix. 

country against the Scotch. About sixteen tiionsand 
insurgents, led by Lord Audley, marched towards 
London to petition the king, but on Blackheath they 
were attaoked by the royal forces and totally defeated, 
1497. The leaders were executed, while the common 
people were allowed to disperse and return home. 
Meanwhile the Scotch made a second inroad, but were 
driven back by the English, who retaliated by ravaging 
the south of Scotland. Negotiations were then com- 
menced to induce James IV. to surrender Warbeck, and 
though this was refused, a seven years' truce was 
concluded between the two countries, in consequence 
of which Warbeck had to leave Scotland. His wander- 
ings now recommenced, and finding no support any- 
where, he at last deserted his followers and took refuge 
in the sanctuary of Beaulieu, in the New Forest. 
There he surrendered on the promise of pardon ; 
but when subsequently he attempted to flee, he was 
seized and imprisoned in the Tower. While there he 
attempted to escape in conjunction with his fellow 
prisoner, the earl of Warwick, in consequence of which 
both A^^re executed, 1499. Whether Warbeck was 
really an impostor, is still a matter of much un- 
certainty. 

Henry had seven children, of whom three died 
young; the survivors were two sons and two daughters. 
The eldest son, Arthur, married Catherine of Arragon 
in 1501, but died in the following year, and Henry, in 
order not to lose the rich dowry which had been 
received with her, planned a marriage of his second 
son, Henry, with the young widow. His eldest 
daughter, Margaret, married James IV. of Scotland 
in 1503. 

Edmund, earl of Suffolk, was now the only one who 
might dispute Henry's title to the crown. He was 
then living in Flanders, under the protection of Philip 
the Fair. In 1506 Philip was obliged, by stress of 
weather, to land at Weymoath, and Henry took the 
opportunity of extorting from him the promise to 
surrender Suffolk, on the distinct understanding that 
his life should be spared. But^ notwithstanding this, 



1509—1547.] HENRY VIIl. 121 

the earl was tlirowii into prison, and, on his death bed, 
Henry desired his son to see that Suffolk was put to 
death, which was done in 1513, Henry YII. died of 
consumption at Eichmond in April, 1509, having 
amassed a fortune of what in our money would make 
sixteen millions stealing. His ruling passion, as we 
have seen, was avarice, and he never scrupled at 
anything to gratify it. There was no lack of men 
ready at all times to assist him in fleecing the people 
and enriching both the king and themselves. The 
Star Chamber, which had been instituted before his 
reign for useful purposes, became under him a tyran- 
nical power to extort money. The reign of Henry A-^II. 
may be regarded as the period of transition from the 
middle ages to modern times. In it Columbus dis- 
covered the West Indies and the mainland of America, 
and Yasco de Gama doubled the Cape of Good Hope, 
thus opening a new route to India. 



2. HENRY Vm,, 1609—1517. 

Henry VIII. was the first king since the time of 
Eichard II. whose title to the crown was undisputed. 
On his accession he was in his eighteenth year, and a 
handsome youth ; he had been most carefully educated, 
and was skilled not only in all manly and martial 
exercises, but also well versed in several branches of 
learning. He seemed to be a young man of a generous 
and open-hearted disposition, but the hopes raised 
during the early part of his reign were destined to be 
sadly disappointed by his conduct and actions in later 
life. 

It had been his father's wish that he should marry 
Catherine of Arragon, the widow of his elder brother, 
Arthur. Henry himself had never been favourable to 
this scheme, but being urged by his council he gave 
way and married Catherine in June, 1509, and for 
many years they lived happily together. One of the 
first acts of his reign was to punish Empson, Dudley, 
and their agents, who had been the chief instruments 
of the extortion practised by his father, and both were 



122 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. IX. 

charged witli high treason and executed, 1510. The 
money, however, which his father had amassed was 
spent by the son in a series of most splendid court 
festivities. 

The first war into which Henry was drawn was 
vdth France. In 1508, Pope Julins II. had formed the 
league of Cambray against the republic of Venice, for 
the purpose of recovering from it some lands which it 
had taken from the Church. When this object was 
attained, he declared his determination to free Italy 
from the dominion of foreigners. With this view he 
prevailed iipon the Emperor Maximilian, Ferdinand of 
Spain, and Henry YIII. to form a holy league for the 
defence of the Church. Henry was further induced to 
claim back the ancient possession of Guienne. This 
was a tempting bait, and on the suggestion of Ferdinand 
a large English force, under the marquis of Dorset, 
landed at Guipuscoa in Biscay, 1512, where it was to 
be joined by a Spanish army, and then to invade 
France. But Ferdinand availed himself of the presence 
of the English for the purpose of conquering Navarre. 
Dorset waited in vain for six months, during which 
his troops suffered severely from disease, and per- 
ceiving at last that Ferdinand was not inclined to aid 
him, he returned to England. The brave admiral. 
Sir Edward Howard, however, ravaged the French 
coast and fought a terrific battle off Brest, in which he 
was victorious. Hostilities between France and 
England continued, and in 1513 a force of twenty-five 
thousand men having been sent into France, Henry 
himself crossed over, and in conjunction with the 
German emperor laid siege to Terouanne. The French 
attempting to relieve the place suffered a disgraceful 
defeat, for owing to a panic having seized their cavalry, 
ten thousand horsemen fled in full gallop before a small 
number of English, whence the battle was called in 
mockery the Battle of the Spurs. Terouanne now 
surrendered, and Tournay also fell into the hands of 
Henry, who, after appointing Wolsey bishop of the 
place, returned to England. 

While these things were going on in France,, the 



1509—1547.] HENKY VIII. 123 

earl of Surrey carried on a successful war against 
Scotland. James lY., though married to Henry's 
sister, had kept up his alliance with France, and had 
been instigated by the French king to invade England, 
At first James had been tolerably successful, but when 
he was met by Surrey at Flodden Field (1513), at the 
foot of the Cheviot Hills, a fierce battle was fought in 
which ten thousand Scotchmen w^ere killed, with their 
king and a large number of their nobility. This was 
the greatest defeat the Scotch had sustained during 
their protracted wars with England. 

In 1514 the French burnt Brighton and rav^.ged 
the south coast of England, but soon after a peace was 
concluded with both Scotland and France, Louis 
agreeing that Henry should keep Tournay, and that 
ho himself should marry Mary, Henry's youngest 
sister. The marriage was indeed celebrated, but three 
months afterwards Louis died. 

Let us now say a few words about one of the 
most remarkable men in English history — Thomas 
Wolsey. He was born at Ipswich, in 1471, of humble 
parents; he was educated at Oxford and soon dis- 
tinguished himself by his talents, his energy, and his 
tact. He had been employed in several affairs of state 
by Henry YIL, and was also for many years the 
principal adviser of Henry YIII., who successively 
made him bishop of Tournay, Lincoln, and York, and 
in 1515 he received a cardinal's hat from Leo X., and 
from Henry the office of chancellor of England; to 
these were afterwards added the office of papal legate 
and bishop of Winchester. Invested with these many 
and varied powers, Wolsey not only wielded the 
destinies of England, but exercised great influence 
upon continental countries. He and his master 
governed the country with almost despotic power, and 
for seven years, from 1515 to 1523, no parliament was 
assembled or consulted, and during that period Wolsey 
had plenty of opportunities of showing his talent for 
statecraft and intrigue. On the death of the Emperor 
Maximilian, in 1519, there appeared three competitors 
for the imperial crown, Charles, the son of Ferdinand 



124 HISTOBY OF ENaLAND. [Chap, IX. 

of Spain, Francis, king of France, and Heniy YIII., 
thongli the last had no chance. The youthful Charles 
(Y.) won the race, and the jealousy thus created 
hetYv^een the rulers of France and Spain made each 
desirous to secure the friendship of Henrj'-. Francis 
accordingly arranged a meeting with Henry near 
Guisnes, where the entertainments offered to the 
English monarch were of such surpassing splendour, 
that the place received the name of the " Field of the 
Cloth of Gold." But the meeting had no political 
results, for Charles V. kept on good terms with Henry, 
and the only important event connected with it was, 
that Edward, duke of Buckingham, who had expressed, 
his disapproval of the meeting, and had incurred the 
hatred of Wolsey, was condemned for treason and 
executed on Tower Hill in 1521. 

In the same year open hostilities broke out between 
France and Spain, and Henry, after an unsuccessful 
attempt at mediation, took the part of his nephew, 
Charles V., who, on the death of Leo X., promised 
Wolsey to assist him to gain the papal throne. But 
Wolsey was disappointed on this occasion, and a second 
time, in 1523, when another election to the papacy took 
place. In consequence of this, Wolsey's interest in the 
emperor cooled. The war against France, however, 
was carried on by the English forces under Surrey and 
Suffolk, the latter of whom devastated the countrj- 
nearly np to the gates of Paris. The Scotch in the 
meantime, at the instigation of Francis, were preparing 
to invade England, but the English, anticipating ^the 
attack, laid waste the border country of Scotland and 
burnt Jedburgh ; after which a truce was concluded, 
which lasted eigliteen years. During this period 
England, as already mentioned, was governed by the 
king and cardinal at their pleasure, but when, in 1523, 
money was wanted, parliament was convoked, and 
Wolsey demanded one-fifth of every man's property. 
But parliament, presided over by Sir Thomas More, its 
Speaker 5 demurred ; and after long disoussiong ei, mp.oh 
Bmalier subsidy was voted, la fo25 Fmnois^ in his 
■ to conquer Milan , was defeated by Oliarke T. 



1509—1547.] HENRY VIII. 125 

at Pavia and taken prisoner, and Henry thinking this a 
favourable opportunity of gaining tlie crown of France, 
Y/liicli English, kings had so often claimed as their 
lawful inheritance, prevailed upon the emperor to join 
him in the invasion of France, by the promise that 
Bnr gundy should be given up to him. But when 
Henry tried to raise the money for this enterprise 
without the sanction of parliament, the people refused 
to pay, and insurrections broke out in several quarters. 
Henry, to avoid greater evils, thought it wise to yield, 
and pardoned the rioters. "When Charles V. found 
that Henry had concluded a separate peace and alliance 
with France, communications were broken off between 
Spain and England. 

The year 1527 was the first in which it was openly 
said that the king had scruples about the validity of 
his marriage with the widow of his brother. He had 
separated from her three years before, but he him- 
self now o^Denly avowed his scruples. It may be 
doubted whether they were genuine, and whether he 
was not more influenced by the charms of Anne 
Boleyn, who had lived for some time at the French 
court, and is said to have there acquired a certain 
levity of manner. But however this may be, the Pope, 
on being applied to for a divorce, granted a commission 
to Wolsey and Cardinal Campeggio, bishop of Salis- 
bury, to inquire into the case. Attempts were at first 
made to induce the queen to retire into a religious 
house, but as she refused, the commission began its 
bittings, though no decision was come to. The Pope, 
then, revoking the commission, summoned Henry to 
appear before him. The king was exasperated at this, 
but blamed Wolsey, whom he believed to be the cause 
of it. Wolsey's ruin soon followed : he was ordered to 
sua-render the great seal which he held as chancellor, 
and being further charged with having broken the 
law by receiving orders from Pome, he was declared to 
have forfeited all his possessions, 8.nd ordered to be 
imprisoned during the royal pleasure. This was 
undoubtedly an act of grosR injustioo, as the cardinal 
had received th@ Pope's instructions with th© Mng*0 



126 HISTORY OP ENGLAND. [GiiAP. IX, 

knowledge and sanction. In tlio next year, however, 
Wolsey was pardoned and ordered to live in his diocese 
at York; but in 1530 he was summoned to London to 
defend himself against certain charges. When he had 
reached Leicester he died, repenting in his last hour 
that he had served his king better than his God. 

Henry being bent upon marrying Anne Boleyn, took 
the advice of Cranmer, a clergyman, and a friend of 
his secretary Gardiner, to seek the opinion of the most 
learned lawyers in Europe. Cranmer was afterwards 
rewarded for this service by receiving the arch- 
bishopric of Canterbury. The opinion of the lawyers, 
which was favourable to the divorce, was laid before 
the Pope, but he hesitated to pronounce the sentence, 
fearing to offend Charles V., a kinsman of the queen. 
Parliament also sided with the king, and even showed 
an inclination to renounce its allegiance to Pome, if 
the Pope would not comply with the request. At last, 
tired of the delay, Henry, in 1533, married Anne 
Boleyn, without waiting for the final decision about 
the divorce, and Cranmer, at a court held at Dunstable, 
solemnly declared that the marriage with Catherine of 
Arragon was null and void, and Anne was crowned 
queen of England with extraordinary splendour. 

Having succeeded thus far, Henry determined hence- 
forth to act with even more energy and firmness : he 
got parliament to enact a measure which virtually 
proclaimed the independence of the English church, 
and another regulating the succession and declaring 
the king's first marriage void. Several persons ob- 
jecting to these measures were condemned and executed. 
One of them was Sir Thomas More, who had succeeded 
Wolsey in the chancellorship. More was a sincere 
catholic, and a man of high honour and integrity. His 
execution raised a cry of indignation all over the 
kingdom. 

The king's supremacy in religious matters was now 
established. He made Thomas ; Cromwell his vicar- 
general, who caused a general visitation of the 
monasteries. This led to an act of parliament sup- 
pressing all those religious houses whose revenues 



1509—1547.] HENRY VIII. 127 

were less than £200 a year, and their estates were 
made over to the crown. Such were the beginnings of 
the English Eeformation, and it is deeply to he 
regretted that it did not spring from purer motives. 
For many years a feeling had been growing in several 
parts of Europe that a reform of the Church of Eome 
had become necessary, and in Germany the monk, 
Martin Luther, scandalized by the sale of indulgences, 
had commenced, in 1517, a movement which soon 
spread beyond the frontiers of his own country. In 
England, too, there were not wanting men who em- 
braced the principles of his reformation. Henry YIIL, 
who was well versed in theological questions, wrote, 
in 1521, a book against Luther, "On the Seven Sacra- 
ments," for which he was rewarded by Pope Leo X. 
with the title of "Defender of the Faith." But as 
Leo's successor, Clement, refused to grant the divorce, 
Henry completely severed the connection with Eome, 
and made himself the head of the English Church. 
He did not, indeed, attempt to change the dogmas of 
the Church, for he himself remained a Catholic to the 
end of his days, but simply substituted his own 
authority for that of the Pope. 

In 1536 Queen Catherine died, and a few months 
later Anne Boleyn followed her to the grave. She 
had many enemies, and was accused of adultery; a 
subservient parliament found her guilt}^ and she was 
executed. The fact seems to have been that the king 
had got tired of her, and had become enamoured of 
Jane Seymour, one of her maids of honour ; and Henry 
committed the atrocious indecency of marrying her the 
very day after the execution of Anne Boleyn. 

The declaration of the independence of the English 
church from Eome, the suppression of monasteries, 
and the new regulations about the forms of worship 
were approved of by the majority of the English 
people, but many were opposed to them. A number of 
men in Lincolnshire rose in rebellion against them, 
but were easily dispersed, and pardoned. A more 
serious revolt broke out in Yorkshire, called the 
^'Pilgrimage of Grace," The men insisted on evil 



128 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. IX. 

councillors being removed from tlie court, and upon the 
restoration of the forms of the old church. They were 
joined by the archbishop of York and many of the 
northern nobles. Several towns fell into their hands, 
but being attacked by a strong force under the duke 
of Norfolk, they lost heart and dispersed, and many of 
their leaders were put to death. This revolt led, in 
1539, to the suppression of all the remaining monas- 
teries, the enormous revenues of which, amounting 
annually to one million and a half of our money, fell into 
the hands of the king, and were partly spent upon the 
creation of new bishoprics, the foundation of colleges 
and schools, and other useful objects. But the great 
bulk was given to favourites and squandered. At the 
same time several abbots and other persons of rank 
were executed on the pretext of their being engaged in 
treasonable plots, but, in fact, because they disapproved 
of the king's separation from Eome and setting himself 
up as the head of the church. Although he ordered 
the Bible to be read in the English language, and 
adopted some measures which seemed favourable to 
protestantism, yet he caused parliament to enact a 
statute for abolishing diversity of opinion on religious 
questions. This statute, consisting of six articles, 
contained the main points of Eoman Catholicism, viz., 
the doctrine of transubstantiation, communion in one 
kind, celibacy of the clergy, vows of chastity, private 
masses, and auricular confession. AH who denied the 
validity of these articles were to receive the severest 
punishments, and were to be burnt alive or executed 
as felons. Owing to its terrible severity, this statute 
was called " the whip with six strings." The number 
of persons refusing compliance with it was so great, 
that even the king's own party did not dare always to 
enforce the penalties. The king had, in fact, taken up 
a position which was as hostile to true Catholics as to 
true Protestants. 

In 1537 Queen Jane Seymour had died, a few days 
after the birth of a son, Edward, and since then Henry 
had been a widower. Cromwell, being himself a 
Protestant at heart, and wishing to strengthen his 



1509—1547.] HENRY VIII, 129 

party, persuaded the king to many Anne of Cleves, a 
German Protestant lady. Henry consented, biAt on 
her first appearance he conceived such a dislike to her, 
that in the very year of the marriage, in 1540, his 
servile friends, on some frivolous pretexts, declared it 
invalid, and immediately afterwards she was divorced. 
Cromwell, about a fortnight later, was put to death for 
having brought about the marriage. 

On the very day of Cromwell's execution Henry 
married his fifth wife, Catherine Howard, only a few 
days after the divorce from Anne of Cleves, Avhose maid- 
of-honour she had been. In the course of the next 
vear it was found out that her conduct before her 
marriage had been unchaste, and, it was said, that 
even after it she had been guilty of adultery. She 
was accordingly attainted by parliament, in 1542, and 
executed with all those who were supposed to have 
been implicated in her misconduct. The year after 
this, 1543, Henr}^ wedded Catherine Parr, a widow^ 
who had embraced protestantism, in consequence of 
vfhich her life, on one occasion, was in serious danger. 
But she was fortunate enouo;h to survive her roval 
husband. 

We must now turn our attention to the affairs of 
Ireland and Scotland, so far as they were connected 
"\\dth England. At "^e accession of Henry YIII., the> 
authority of England extended over only a portion of 
Ireland, the rest was governed by a number of chief- 
tains, partly English and partly Irish. Henry con- 
trived to win over the leaders, and by conferring 
titles and honours upon them, he induced them to 
recognise him as their chief. Henceforth he styled 
himself king of Ireland, which title was confirmed by 
an act of parliament in 1544. 

The relation between Scotland and England ha^d 
been unsatisfactory for some time. A war at length 
broke out, in which the Scotch were beaten in an 
engagement called " The Ptout of Solway." King 
James died immediately after this, from vexation ; but 
a treatj^ of peace was concluded, and Henry, thinking 
that it might be possible to unite the two kingdoms 



130 HISTORY OF ENaLAND. [CilAP. IX. 

under one head, planned a marriage between his son, 
Edward, and the infant princess, Mary (afterwards 
queen of Scots), daughter of James Y. But Cardinal 
Beaton, a strong supporter of the Pope's authority, 
opposed the alliance with England, and Henry, exaspe- 
rated at this, in 1544, sent a strong force into Scotland, 
which burnt Edinburgh and Leith and devastated the 
country. As the Scotch received support and en- 
couragement from France, Henry, hoping to please 
Charles V. who was again on friendly terms with him, 
invaded France, heading a force of thirty thousand 
men. He laid siege to Boulogne, which surrendered 
after two mjonths, but before anything further could 
be undertaken, the emperor made a separate peace 
with Francis, leaving Henry to manage his affairs as 
best he could. In the following year, Francis collected 
a large fleet to invade England, and an engagement 
took place off Portsmouth, where he sunk an English 
ship with seven hundred men. But he nevertheless 
soon gave up the undertaking, and concluded a peace 
in 1546, according to which the English, at the end of 
eight Jyears, were to give up Boulogne, and were to 
receive a compensation of two millions of crowns ; 
Scotland also was included in this act of pacification. 
This was the last warlike undertaking in which 
Henry engaged, for death overtook him on January 
28, 1547. He had latterly become so corpulent that 
he had to be wheeled from one room to another. He 
was buried at Windsor with the rites of the church of 
Eome. 

Henry left three children, a son, Edward, by Jane 
Seymour, one daughter, Mary, by Catherine of Arragon, 
and another, Elizabeth, by Anne Boleyn. All of whom 
one after another succeeded him on the throne. His 
reign is one of the most memorable in English histor}^ 
The development of the constitution was checked for a 
time by his tyrannical and arbitrary proceedings, and 
the parliament, when it was convoked, was little more 
than a tool ready to sanction the acts of the haughty 
and self-willed ruler. The Eeformation, so far as it 
belongs to his reign, consisted mainly in substituting 



1547— 1563.] EDWARD VI. l3l 

the king's atitliority for tliat of tlie Pope; but still, 
one step was gained by the Scriptures beings made 
accessible to all in their English translations, of which 
there appeared three, by Tyndal, Coverdale, and 
Cranmer. The doctrines of the Eoman church not 
only remained untouched, but disbelief in them was 
punished with merciless severity. England's naval 
power entered upon a new career under him, for he 
no longer hired foreign ships, but founded dockyards 
at Woolwich, 'Deptford, and Portsmouth, and estab- 
lished the Trinity House for the encouragement of 
navigation. 

3. EDWAED VI., 1547—1553. 

Edward VI., the only son of Henry VIII., was in 
his tenth year when his father died. His education 
was conducted by able men and with great care, and 
considering that at his death he was scarcely sixteen 
years old, he had made unusual progress in his studies. 
His character, so far as it could be known, inspired 
great hopes, but as he died so early we can hardly 
speak of his reign, for all that was done and accom- 
plished was the work of his councillors. By his 
father's will, the government, during Edward's mi- 
nority, was carried on by a body of sixteen councillors 
or executors, who nominated the king's uncle, the earl 
of Hertford, protector and guardian; he was at the 
same time created duke of Somerset. Both he and the 
young king strongly favoured the protestant cause, 
while the Chancellor Wriothesley, who was made earl 
of Southampton, was at the head of the catholic party, 
and naturally felt jealous of Somerset's position and 
influence with the king. Owing to some irregularity 
in the discharge of his judicial functions, he was 
dismissed by the protector, who now received full 
authority to make what regulations he might think fit 
for the good of the kingdom. 

We have seen that the scheme of Henry VIII. to 
unite the crowns of England and Scotland was thwarted 
by the opposition of Cardinal Beaton ; but Somerset 



132 HISTORY OF ENG-LxVND. [Chap. IX. 

now resolved upon carrying ont tlie plan, and as some 
of tlie Scotcli nobility favoured tlie reformed doctrines, 
or were not averse to them, a secret treaty was concluded 
in wliicli they promised to aid the protector in bring- 
ing about the marriage between Edward and Mary, 
the infant queen of Scots. As soon as this arrange- 
ment became known, the national spirit of the Scotch 
rose against it, and war was declared. Somerset 
invaded Scotland with a large force*, and met the 
enemy at Pinkie, near Musselburgh, where he defeated 
them in a hotly-contested battle in which ten thousand 
Scotchmen perished and fifteen hundred v/ere taken 
prisoners. Next to the day of Flodden Field, this was 
the most terrible blow that Scotland had received. 
After plundering Leith and devastating the country, 
the conqueror hurried back to London in 1547. The^ 
Scotch now allied themselves with France more closely^ 
than ever, and a marriage was arranged between the 
Dau^Dhin and the infant Mary, who was at once 
conveyed to France. A few years later, 1550, a peace 
was concluded both with Scotlandi and France, in 
which Boulogne was restored to the French on their 
paying 200,000 crowns. 

In England the interests of the Reformation were in 
the meantime vigorously promoted by Somerset and 
Archbishop Cranmer. The statute of the " Six 
Articles" and some others relating to treason were 
abolished, and an act was passed ordering that the 
communion should be administered in both kinds ; a 
prayer-book was compiled and its use enforced by an 
act of uniformity ; priests were allowed to marry, and 
a number of articles were drawn up embodying the 
doctrines of the reformed English church. 

Lord Seymour, the brother of Somerset, had married 
Catherine Parr, the widow of the late king, and after 
her somewhat sudden death it was suspected that the 
ambitious nobleman was harbouring the plan of 
marrying the Princess Elizabeth ; and it was further 
observed that he tried in every way to win the affec- 
tions of the young king. On these and other grounds 
lie was accused of treason, found guilty, and executed 



1547—1553.] EDWARD VI. 133 

in 1549, Ills own brother having signed the death 
warrant. 

Several causes combined to excite the dissatisfaction 
of the people in different parts of the country, and 
gave rise to insurrections. In some cases they arose 
from the fact that noblemen enclosed the commons, 
which nntil then had been free pasture land of the 
adjoining villages. Most of these outbreaks were 
easily suppressed ; but in Cornwall, Devonshire, and 
Norfolk they assumed a religious character. The 
insurgents demanded the restoration of the mass, the 
re-enactment of the " Six Articles," and the restoration 
of some of the abbeys. But the vigorous measures of 
the government were everywhere victorious, and many 
of the leaders of the rebels, and those who had en- 
couraged them, were executed. The poorer classes of 
the population materially suffered by tlie proceedings 
of the reformers ; for formerly they had been employed 
or supported by the religious houses, and now large 
numbers w^ere homeless and lived by beggary. Hence 
the country was swarming with vagrants, against whom 
the severest laws were enacted. This accounts for the 
facility with which insurrections were excited. Earl 
Warwick had been most successful in dispersing and 
defeating the insurgents, in consequence of which he 
became a great favourite with the nobility. He was 
the son of Dudley, who in the reign of Henry YII. had 
made himself notorious by his extortions to satisfy 
that king's avarice. He now began to organise a 
conspiracy against the protector, who had displayed 
considerable rapacity and demolished religious edifices 
in order to obtain the materials for a palace he was 
building for himself in the Strand. As nearly the 
whole of the council favoured Warwick, Somerset was 
arrested and brought to trial. But as no charge of 
treason could be brought against him, he was only 
deposed from his office a,nd imprisoned, so that 
Warwick now virtually became the head of the 
government, 1549. In the year following, Somerset 
regained his freedom on most humiliating terms, and 
was allowed to take part in the deliberations of the 



134 msTOEY OF ENGLAND. [diiAP. It, 

council. Tlie Reconciliation between the two rivals 
was effected by Warwick's son marrying a dangliter 
of Somerset. But after a while the latter attempted 
to recover his former position and j)ower, which cansed 
his arrest and the charge of treason and felony, for 
which he was executed in 1552. 

Warwick, shortly before this, had been raised to the 
rank of duke of Northumberland. He had now the 
complete control of all affairs, and although he was a 
catholic at heart, still not to lose his influence over 
the young king, he was obliged to fall in with his 
views. Some of the catholic prelates were deprived 
of their sees and imprisoned, and attempts were made 
to convert the Princess Mary who was a staunch 
catholic. Northumberland's next step was to try to 
alter the succession, so as to exclude Mary and raise 
Elizabeth to the throne, or, failing her, the heirs of 
Mary, sister of Henry VIII., whose family was strongly 
attached to protestantism. Edward was then prevailed 
upon to name Mary's granddaughter. Lady Jane Grey, 
who was married to a son of Northumberland, as 
his successor. This was a violation of the will of 
Henry YIII. and of an act of parliament, and although 
the lords of the council and others, from fear of 
Northumberland, sanctioned the illegal arrangement, 
it was soon frustrated. 

Soon after the execution of Somerset, King Edward 
was attacked by smallpox, and when he had recovered, 
a pulmonary disease made its appearance, and he 
gradually sank, and died at Greenwich on the 6th of 
July, 1553. 

4. MAEY, 1553—1568. 

Mary, the eldest daughter of Henry VIII., was 
destined by the will of her father to succeed her 
brother, Edward, but we have seen that the duke of 
Northumberland had tried to secure the succession to 
his own daughter-in-law, Lady Jane Grey. Eor this 
purpose he designed to keep Edward's death secret 
until he should get Mary into his power. This was 



1553-1558.] MA-Rt. 135 

also the reason why the accession of Jane Grey tvas 
not made known till four days after the king's death ; 
but Mary, who had heard of Edward's death and 
of IS'orthumberland's design, went to the strong castle 
of Framlingham in Suffolk, whence she wrote to the 
council, complaining of their conduct and ordering 
them to proclaim her queen. Northumberland had 
become very unpopular, and many of his own friends 
began to espouse the cause of Mary ; although, there- 
fore, he had a strong force at his command, he de- 
spaired of success and withdrew to Cambridge, where, 
after disbanding his men, he proclaimed M ary queen. 
Lady Jane Grey who had enjoyed the royal honours 
for thirteen days was now put aside, and on the ord of 
August, Mary, accompanied by her sister Elizabeth, 
entered London in a sort of triumph. The Catholics 
Avho had been imprisoned were liberated, and Korthum- 
berland was execiited for high treason ; his son with 
other nobles, Jane Grey, her husband, Cranmer, 
Latimer, and many others, were declared guilty of 
treason and imprisoned in the Tower. The catholic 
prelates who had been deprived of their sees were 
restored. 

On the first meeting of parliament, the validity of the 
marriage of Henry YIII. with Catherine of Arragon 
was declared, so that Marj^'s title could not now be 
doubted. The forms of worship introduced under her 
predecessor were abolished, and those observed in the 
last year of Henry VIII. were restored ; married 
priests were compelled to abandon their wives or were 
expelled. Before the end of the first year Mary, 
declared her intention to marry Philip of Spain, son 
of Charles V. This announcement created fear and 
alarm not only among the Protestants but among the 
people generally, who thought that England might 
become a mere province of Spain. As petitions against 
the marriage were of no avail, a rebellion arose headed 
by the duke of Suffolk, Sir Thomas Wyatt, and Sir 
Peter Carev7. But their plans were badly managed 
and failed. Carew escaped into France, and Suffolk, 
being made prisoner, was carried to London. Wyatt 



136 



HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 



[Chap. IX. 



alone lield out and made Lis way into London, "but 
owing to the prudent and energetic measures of tlie 
queen lie was obliged to surrender. This rebellion 
aroused the fears and suspicions of the queen ; orders 
were given to execute Lady Jane Grey, her husband, 




DEATH OF LADY JANE GRET. 



and Suffolk; and Wyatt with fifty others were like- 
wise put to death as traitors. For some time even the 
life of Elizabeth was in danger, it being believed that 
she had been concerned in the rebellion. But as there 
was no proof, she was at first imprisoned in the Tower, 
and then removed to Woodstock, where she was kept 
in strict confinement by her jailor. Sir Henry Beding- 
field. 

At last, in July, 1554, Philip of Spain landed in 
England, and was married to Mary at Winchester 
amid great festivities. A few months later. Cardinal 
Pole also arrived as the Pope's legate, who prevailed 
upon parliament to return to the old allegiance with 
Rome, and granted absolution for their past errors. 

The queen, who herself was fiei^cely opposed to 
protestantism, was urged on by the violent counsels of 
her chancellor, Gardiner, and there now began a series 
of persecutions which lasted until the end of Mary's 



1552—1558.] MARY.. 137 

reign. Tlie first among her victims were Eogers, a 
prebendary of St. Paul's, and Hooper, both of whom 
were burnt alive. Gardiner himself seems to have 
become tired of his work, but his place was supplied 
by Bonner, bishop of London, who surpassed even his 
predecessor in his passion for persecution. Latimer 
and Ridley were burnt at Oxford, and Latimer, when 
fastened to the stake, called out . " Be of good comfort, 
Master Eidley, and play the man ; we shall this day 
light such a candle, by God's grace, in England, as 
shall never be put out." Cranmer, in the vain hope 
that his life would be spared, had the weakness to 
recant ; but when he was, nevertheless, led to execution, 
he publicly declared that he bitterly repented of his 
recantation, and thrust the hand which had signed it 
into the fire, exclaiming : " This hand has offended !" 
Persecutions went on without interruption, and nearly 
three hundred persons were burnt at the stake, while 
many others perished in the prisons. 

After the death of Cranmer, Cardinal Pole was made 
archbishop of Canterbury, and now also began to 
exercise his functions as papal legate. The queen had, 
of course, restored to the church all the property over 
which she had control, but the nobility, who had been 
greatly benefited by the spoliations, refused to follow 
her example. 

Whether Philip had anything to do v/ith the 
persecutions in England is uncertain ; but he seems to 
have lost his interest in the country, and as there was 
little prospect of issue, he left England in 1555, and 
did not return till 1557, for the purpose of urging the 
queen to join him in a war against France. This was 
contrary to an article in the marriage contract, accord- 
ing to which England was not to go to war witli 
France for the interests of Spain. But as Henry II. 
of France was at the time supporting some English 
refugees who took possession of the castle of Scar- 
borough, war was declared, and eight thousand men 
were sent to join the Spanish army. When this object 
was attained, Philip left England, and never returned. 

The English and Spanish forces invested St. Quentin, 



13S HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [ChAp. 11. 

and an attempt of the Frencli to relieve tlie place led 
to the famous battle of St. Quentin, in which the French 
were defeated with immense loss. The Duke de Guise, 
knowing that Calais was insufficiently garrisoned, made 
an attack upon it, and Earl Wentworth, the governor, 
finding that his case was hopeless, surrendered in 
1558, and the English thus lost the last of their 
possessions in France, which for centuries had been the 
cause of war between the two nations. At the time 
the loss was felt very keenly, and perhaps by no one 
more keenly than by the queen herself. Her health had 
been bad for some time, and the loss of Calais, and the 
knowledge that she was very unpopular with many of 
her subjects, seems to have hastened her end. She 
expired in London, November 17, 1558. 

That Mary during her reign perpetrated many acts 
of unpardonable cruelty, to which she owes the name 
of the Bloody Mary, cannot be denied. But there are 
circumstances which, if they cannot excuse, may at 
least palliate her acts. Her mother's disgrace, which 
involved her own illegitimacy, must have soured her 
mind. During her brother's reign she herself had 
been much persecuted. AVhen we further remember 
that the reforming party attempted to deprive her of 
the succession, we cannot much wonder that she 
should have listened to advisers like Gardiner and 
Bonner. 



5. ELIZABETH, 1558—1603. 

Elizabeth, daughter of Henry VIII. and Anne Boleyn, 
was proclaimed queen on the very day of her sister's 
death, and proceeded to London, where she was 
welcomed by the great body of the people. After the 
execution of her mother she had been declared ille- 
gitimate, but she was, nevertheless, carefully educated, 
and became proficient in the ancient as well as in some 
modern languages, and in various female accomplish- 
ments. During the reign of Mary, she had been 
obliged to conceal her convictions and to conform to 
the rules of the old church. The insurrection of 



1558-~1603.] FLIZABETH. 139 

Wyatt had placed her very life in danger. But after 
her accession she immediately and without fear 
showed what her real convictions were. She selected 
Sir William Cecil, a well-known Protestant, as her 
principal adviser, released all those who had been 
imprisoned for their religious opinions, forbade un- 
licensed preaching, and ordered every part of divine 
service to be performed in English. 

Her accession, though welcomed by the majority of 
her people, was by no means satisfactory to all. Most 
of the Catholics still regarded her as illegitimate, and 
looked upon Mary of Scotland as the rightful heir to 
the throne; all the bishops refused to assist at her 
coronation, with the exception of the bishop of 
Carlisle, who was prevailed upon to perform the 
ceremony. But when parliament assembled, early in 
1559, it declared Elizabeth legitimate, restored the 
supremacy of the crown in ecclesiastical as well as in 
all other matters ; and the book of Common Prayer 
used under Edward VI., with some alterations, was 
ordered to be read in all the churches. The queen 
was further allowed to nominate the " Court of High 
Commission," to which her spiritual jurisdiction was 
entrusted. 

When the bishops were summoned to take the oath 
of supremacy, all refused except the bishop of Llandaff, 
and all were deprived of their sees ; many other 
ecclesiastical dignitaries also were removed. But 
among the parochial clergy only few were prepared to 
give up their livings. The episcopal sees were then 
filled with men ready to support the reformation, and 
Parker became archbishop of Canterbury. Many men, 
no doubt, conformed to the new rules and laws from 
worldly motives, and many of those who were sincere 
did not agree with the doctrines and ceremonies 
ordered by the queen's authority. These latter were 
the Protestant dissenters or nonconformists. The 
Catholics, on the other hand, formed a powerful 
opposition, and it may be said that the whole of 
Elizabeth's long reign was an almost uninterrupted 
struggle with these two parties, But Elizabeth was 



140 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. IX. 

determined to have lier own way in tliese as in all 
other matter?!. The Catholics were the more dangerous 
of the two, as they did not scruple to gain their end 
by plots and cons23iracies. As they were not allowed 
to have any schools or colleges for the education of 
their priests, young men had to he sent to places in 
France, Italy, or Germany, while priests from those 
countries often visited England in secret, in order to 
keep alive the ancient faith. These and similar things 
led the government to have recourse to severe measures, 
and the Protestants now in their turn persecuted the 
Catholics almost as much as the Catholics had before 
persecuted the Protestants. Heavy fines were imposed 
for non-attendance at church and for celebrating mass, 
and persons trying to win over anyone to the Roman 
Church, and all priests and Jesuits found in the 
kingdom were treated as guilty of treason. Many 
Catholics were thus executed, tortured, or otherwise 
punished. 

Many of those Protestants who in the reign of 
Maiy had fled to the Continent, had become disciples 
of Calvin at Geneva ; they now returned home with 
peculiar views about the forms of public worship ; they 
objected to clerical vestments and other ritualistic 
forms ; they endeavoured, in short, to restore what 
they considered to have been the pure form of Christian 
worship during the first centuries after Christ, v/hence 
they received the name of Puritans. They met at first 
in private houses, but, in 1570, Thomas CartAvright, a 
divinity professor of Cambridge, formed them into a 
separate religious party. Cartwright himself was 
obliged to take to flight, but many Protestant clergy- 
man adopted his views, and set up places of worship in 
which they conducted divine service after their own 
fashion. As they greatly increased in numbers the}^, 
too, were persecuted with fines, banishment, and even 
death. Elizabeth herself inclined more to the Lutheran 
views than those of the Swiss reformer, whose prin- 
ciples were propagated in Scotland by John Knox. 

Mary, queen of Scots, was only a week old when her 
father, James Y., died, and her education was con- 



1558—1603.] ELIZABETH. 141 

diicted by lier mother, Mary of Guise, who was 
appointed regent. We have seen that she was Tbe- 
trothed to the Danphin, and at the age of five she had 
been taken to the French court, where she was 
educated till her marriage in 1558. Her husband died 
a few years afterwards. The moral laxity of the 
French court could not but exercise its influence on 
the beautiful young widow. As her father was a 
direct descendant of Henry YIL, the Catholic Mary 
was the natural rival of the Protestant Elizabeth, and 
her claims to the English throne were asserted by the 
Catholics from the beginning of Elizabeth's reign. 
The Guise familj^ which w^as all-powerful in France, 
even induced her to assume the title and the arms of 
Ihe queen of England. In Scotland the reformed 
doctrines had made great j)i'Ogress, and the nobles 
heading the Protestant party called themselves the 
" Lords of the Congregation." 

The regent, dreading their power, sought the assist- 
ance of France, and as England was thus threatened on 
two sides, Elizabeth secretly supported the Scotch 
Protestants, and concluded a treaty with them at 
Berwick for mutual defence. Soon after this the 
queen-regent died. The French trooj)s who were 
attacked by the English were shut up in Leith and 
compelled to surrender, whereupon a treaty was 
concluded at Edinburgh, 1560, in which it was 
stipulated that the French should evacuate Scotland 
and that Mary should cease assuming the title of queen 
of England. Mary, influenced by the Guise jparty, 
refused to ratify it. Meanwhile the Scottish parliament 
established the reformed religion, and forbade the 
celebration of mass under heavy penalties. 

In the year 1561, Mary, after the death of her 
husband, returned to Scotland, and for about four 
years her kingdom enjoyed a tolerable degree of tran- 
quillity. She then married her cousin, Lord Darnley, 
a handsome but passionate and dissolute character, 
who like herself was a descendant of Henry VII. 
Mary had made the Piedmontese musician, J)avid 
Bizzio, her French secretary, and, disgusted with 



142 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. IX. 

Darnley's profligacy, she sjoent mucli of her time with 
the secretary. This excited Darnley's jealousy, and he 
had Eizzio dragged from the queen's presence into a 
side chamber, where he was dispatched by a band of 
ruffians. This act must have extinguished whatever 
love she may still have felt for her husband ; but she 
nevertheless tenderly nursed him soon afterwards, 
when he was seized with smallpox in the neighbour- 
hood of Glasgow. In June, 1566; three months after 
the murder of Eizzio, Mary gave birth to a son, who 
afterwards, as James VI., became king of Scotland and 
subsequently of England as James I. After Darnley's 
recovery she brought her husband back to Edinburgh, 
and thinking Holyrood an unhealthy place, she assigned 
to him a solitary house near Edinburgh, called Kirk of 
Field. He had not been there many days when one 
morning the house was blown up by gunpowder, and 
Darnley's body was found at some distance from it. Lord 
Lennox, Darnley's father, suspecting that Bothwell, a 
great favourite of the queen, had been the perpetrator 
or instigator of the crime, commenced proceedings 
against him ; but when on the day of the trial Bothwell 
appeared surrounded by a large body of armed men, 
Lennox was afraid to make the charge, and Bothwell 
was acquitted. One month after this, Mary married 
the licentious Bothwell, who was made duke of Orkney, 
and as he was a Protestant, the marriage ceremony 
was performed according to the rites of the reformed 
church, although, according to Mary's principles, she 
could not regard the marriage otherwise than as 
invalid. 

This act immediately led to a confederacy of the 
nobles, the alleged object being to protect the infant 
prince and to punish the murderers of his father. 
Mary collected a small force and advanced against the 
insurgents, but finding that she could not depend on 
her own soldiers, she surrendered and was imprisoned 
in a castle on an island in Loch Leven. Bothwell 
escaped, became a pirate, and died in a prison in 
Denmark. While at Loch Leven, Mary was terrified 
into resigning the crown to her infant son, and tho 



1558—1603.] ELIZABETH. 143 

earl of Murray, or Moray, lier illegitimate brother, was 
appointed regent. After having been imprisoned for 
ten months, Mary made her escape, and soon gathered 
a force of six thousand men. She was attacked by 
Murray, and being defeated at Langside near Glasgow, 
she fled to Carlisle, 1568. 

This flight into England placed the English govern- 
ment in a difficult position. If Elizabeth had granted 
her protection, it would have been said that she 
connived at the grave charge brought against her of 
having instigated the murder of Darnley. On the 
other hand, if Elizabeth allowed Mary to take her own 
course, she knew that the Catholics would rally round 
her and endanger the peace of the kingdom. Mary 
was therefore removed from Carlisle to Bolton Castle, 
where she was virtually detained as a prisoner. 
Commissioners were sent to York to investigate the 
case, but the charges and countercharges were so 
complicated that no conclusion could be come to, and 
the commission was removed to London. Elizabeth 
was advised by her council not to liberate Mary until 
her innocence should be fully established. M.aTy, 
therefore, remained a prisoner, first at Tutbury and 
afterwards in Sheffield Castle, from 1570 to 1584. 

We have already seen that Elizabeth had to contend 
at home both against the Catholics and the ultra- 
Protestants or non-conformists. From abroad rumours 
reached England that the Pope was ready to give the 
sovereignty of the country to any Catholic prince who 
would conquer it, and restore the old allegiance with 
Iiome. There was, in fact, every reason to believe 
that the Pope, in conjunction with France and Spain, 
would leave nothing untried to eradicate protestantism 
altogether ; the plan of effecting this in England could 
be carried out only by dethroning Elizabeth and 
conferring the crown on Mary. With this view the 
earls of Westmoreland and Northumberland, the chiefs 
of the Catholic nobility, took up arms demanding the 
restoration of the ancient religion and the liberation of 
Marj^ They advanced with their forces into York- 
shire; but wheu they learned that Surrey was 

K 



144 HISTOBY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. IX 

marcliing against tliem witli a strong body of troops, 
they disbanded their followers and fled into Scotland", 
and their adherents were severely punished. West- 
moreland afterwards escaped to the Netherlands and 
entered the service of Spain, while Northumberland 
was seized by Murray and sent to England, where he 
was executed. The duke of Norfolk, who had formed 
the design of marrying Queen Mary, and had not been 
foreign to the insurrection, was tried„ and likewise put 
to death, 1572. 

In this same year about fifty thousand French 
Protestants were massacred in France, where they 
were called Huguenots. The massacre commenced on 
St. Bartholomew's day, whence it is known in history 
as the massacre of St. Bartholomew. In the Nether- 
lands, the Spaniards under Alva, who could boast of 
having slain one hundred thousand heretics, raged 
with equal fury. In 1578 Elizabeth concluded an 
alliance with the Netherlands who had risen against 
Alva, in which she engaged^ to support them with both 
men and money. 

About seven years later, 1584, events occurred 
which induced parliament to enact energetic measures 
for the protection of the queen's life against con- 
spirators. That such measures were necessary was 
proved in the following year, when a plot was formed 
to assassinate Elizabeth and to liberate Mary. Many 
persons were implicated in it, but owing to the 
vigilance of Walsingham, Elizabeth's secretary, the 
conspiracy was brought to light. Many of the accom- 
plices were arrested, and the leaders were executed as 
traitors, 1586. Mary was said to have been connected 
with this plot, and to have consented to the assassina- 
tion of Elizabeth. A commission was accordingly 
appointed to try her at Fotheringay Castle. The 
evidence brought forward against her showed that she 
had invited the French to invade England, but she 
Bolemnly declared that she had not conspired, against 
the life of Elizabeth. The court, however, found her 
guilty of having compassed the death of Elizabeth. 
Whether this verdict was based on sufficient evidence, 



1558—1603.] ELIZABETH. 145 

is still a matter of some uncertainty, bnt Elizabeth 
might, at all events, have avoided i carrying out the 
extreme punishment. After some affected hesitation 
she signed the death warrant, and the unhappy Mary 
was executed at Fotheringay, 1587. She bore her fate 
with firmness and in a truly Christian spirit. 

Pope Sixtus, exasperated at the execution of a 
Catholic queen, called Elizabeth the English Jezebel, 
and urged Philip of Spain to prepare for the conquest 
of England. Philip accordingly resolved to attack 
England with all the forces at his command. At all 
the ports of Spain, Portugal, Italy, and Sicily, prepa- 
rations were made on a gigantic scale, and an army of 
thirty thousand men was placed under the command of 
the duke of Parma. The English government, in the 
meantime, neglected nothing to put the country in s»: 
state of defence. Admiral Drake, in 1587, was sent to 
the coast of Spain, and at Cadiz destroyed one hundred 
Spanish ships, or as he expressed it, " singed the king's 
beard." This loss delayed the Spanish exjoedition for a 
whole year. When at last all was ready, the Invincible 
Armada, as it was proudly called, set sail in May, 1588. 
It consisted of a hundred and thirty ships, eight 
thousand sailors, and twenty thousand soldiers, and 
was placed under the command of Medina Sidonia, a 
man who knew very little of maritime warfare. The 
English fleet, under the command of Lord Howard 
of Effingham, assisted by Drake, Hawkins, and 
Forbisher, consisted of about a hundred and forty 
ships, many of which were very small, and fifteen 
thousand men. Besides this there were three land 
armies, one consisting of thirty thousand men which 
was to be employed as occasion required, and the two 
others of twenty thousand each were stationed on thp 
south coast and at Tilbury. 

When the Spanish Armada starfed, a tempest arose 
which did great damage to the ships and caused the 
delay of a month. At length it set sail in July, and 
the hostile fleets met in the British Channel. In the 
first skirmishes the English seamen and their light 
craft proved superior to those of Spain. On the 27th 



146 



HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 



[Chap. IX. 



of July the Armada anchored off Calais, where it was 
to ^ he joined hy the force under Parma. To prevent 
this, Howard in the night sent a number of fire-ships 
into the Spanish fleet, where they created such a panic 
that the Spaniards cut away from their anchorage and 
resolved to sail home round the north of Scotland and 
Ireland. Howard chased them as far as Flamhorough 




THE SPANISH AnaiADA. 



Head, and then returned, as he was in want of pro- 
visions. Between the Orkneys and Hebrides the 
Spaniards were overtaken by a storm, which completely 
dispersed them, and destroyed so many of their ships, 
that scarcely one-third of the great Armada reached 
Spain, and twenty thousand men were lost. 

The joy of the English people was unbounded, for 
England had indeeid had a narrow escape. When all 
fear of the Armada had ceased, a vigorous war was 
ca-rried on against Spain and her American colonies, 
and in 1596 Howard took and plundered Cadiz, where 
a vast amount of treasure was taken. 

In 3598 Philip II. died, but the desire to renew 
hostilities agaiiist England did not die with him, a^nd 



1S5S— 1603.] ELIZABEl'H. • 147 

Ireland was in great danger of being seized upon by 
tiie enemy. That country bad long been in a very 
disturbed state. The natives were discontented be- 
cause the best parts of the land were in the hands of 
Englishmen, who treated the natives with great 
cruelty and insolence. In addition to this, tlie Irish 
remained attached to their old religion and refused to 
listen to the new doctrines. The Catholic states of 
France and Spain encouraged the rebellious spirit of 
the Irish, and Spain especially supported them with 
men and money in retaliation for Elizabeth's inter- 
ference in the Netherlands. One of the principal 
leaders of the Irish was Shan O'Neal, earl of Desmond, 
Avho was succeeded by Hugh O'Neal, his nephew, 
whom Elizabeth made earl of Tyrone in the hope of 
winning him over to her side. But notwithstanding 
this he put himself at the head of a formidable 
rebellion in which he was supported by Spain with 
arms and otherwise. Several English generals were 
sent against him, and one of them was killed in 1598, 
in an attempt to relieve Blachwater, where the 
English sustained a severe loss. Nearly the whole of 
the native population was now in arms, and it became 
imperative to adoj)t energetic measures. The earl of 
Essex, the queen's favourite, was appointed lord- 
lieutenant ; but the earl, who had before distinguished 
himself in the war against Spain, wasted his time and 
his forces in petty skirmishes, without obtaining any 
result; and finding at last that his forces were not 
strong enough to encounter the enemy, he concluded a 
truce with Tyrone. Elizabeth hearing of this was 
filled with indignation, and Essex, afraid of the conse- 
quences, left Ireland. But after a time he ventured to 
appear before the queen, who ordered him to be 
temporarily confined, and Lord Mountjoy, who was 
sent to Ireland in his stead, soon compelled the Irish to 
submit to the queen's authority. Essex in the mean- 
time was deprived of his offices, but still hoped to 
regain the queen's favour. Finding this impossible he 
resolved to overthrow the power of the party at court 
which had intrigued against him. An attem^ot was 



148 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. IX. 

even made to seize the person of the queen, but the 
plan utterly failed, and Essex was carried to the 
Tower, condemned for high treason, and executed, 
1601. A Spanish fleet landed at Kinsale to aid the 
Irish Catholics, but was defeated by Mountjoy and 
obliged to capitulate. Not long afterwards Tyrone 
also surrendered on condition that his life should be 
spared. This act terminated the Irish rebellion. 

During the last years of her reign Elizabeth was in 
a state of mental depression, probably the result of 
the many troubles of her long reign. At last she sank 
into a lethargic slumber, and died March 24, 1603, in 
her seventieth year. Although she disliked James VJ. 
of Scotland, she did not oppose his succession because 
he had a legitimate claim to the throne and because he 
was a Protestant. 

In the reign of Elizabeth the English reformation 
was completed ; the prosperity of the country rapidly 
improved, and the foundations were laid of our in- 
dustrial, commercial, and maritime greatness. Much 
of this was doubtless owing to the energetic character 
of the queen herself, but much also to the wisdom of 
her councillors. The character of her government was 
sometimes arbitrary and despotic, and although she 
remained a maiden queen, her tastes were coarse, and 
her court was not as morally pure as might have been 
expected. But notwithstanding all that may be said 
against her, her reign is in many ways one of the most 
brilliant periods of English history. 



1603—1625.] 



JAMES I. 



149 



CHAPTER X. 



THE HOUSE OP STUART. 



James I. . . 
Charles I. . 
Commonwealtli 
Charles U. . . 



1603—1625 
1625—1649 
1649—1660 
1660—1685 



James 11. . 
William III. 
Anne . 



1685—1688 
1688—1702 
1702—1714 



1. JAMES I., 1603—1625. 



JameSj the son of Mary, queen of Scots, "by lier second 
liusl)and. Lord Darnley, was crowned king of Scotland 
during his mother's captivity in Loch Leven Castle. 
His accession to the English throne at length bronght 
the two kingdoms under one head, which was, on the 
whole, beneficial to both countries. But the Catholics 
then, as before, would have liked better to see the throne 
occupied by one of their own way of thinking. And 
in the very first year of James's reign, two plots were 
formed against him — the "Main" and the "Bye" plots; 
the object of the former is said to have been to raise to 
the throne Lady Arabella Stuart, who, like James, was 
descended from Henry VII. This, however, may have 
been a mere pretext ; for the leaders, such as Ealeigh, 
lords Cobham, Grey, and the earl of K^orthumberland, 
were much dissatisfied with the new king, whom they 
only wished to frighten. The " Bye " plot which was 
going on at the same time, was formed by Eoman 
Catholics and Puritans, who wanted to seize the person 
of the king and to compel him to grant more religious 
toleration. These two plots, which somehow became 
mixed together, were ultimately abandoned ; but they 
had not escaped the vigilance of the government, and 
some of the leaders were put to death and others 
banished. Walter Ealeigh, Cobham, and Grey, how- 
ever, though condemned to death, were reprieved, and 
imprisoned. 

We have already seen that the Puritans were 
opposed to many of the views of the English reformed 
church, and as the throne was now occupied by a king 
who had been brought up in the Scotch Presbyterian 



150 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. X* 

principles, they tliouglit tlie time liad come when tliey 
might hope for a general adojDtion of their opinions. 
A petition was accordingly drawn np, signed by nearly 
a thousand clergymen, hence called the " Millenary 
Petition," in which they stated their wishes and the 
objections the}'- felt to the established system. Ey 
order of the king, a conference was held at Hampton 
Court, 1604, at which the subject was to be discussed 
by representatives of both parties. The king, who 
himself acted as moderator, strongly supported the 
English church joarty, and the resolutions formed were 
as gratifying to the English church party as they were 
unsatisfactory to the Puritans, for none of their griev- 
ances were redressed. 

The Catholics also hoped to obtain better terms from 
the son of Mary, but they were likewise disappointed, 
for he proceeded against them with increased severity, 
and this so much incensed the more violent spirits among 
them, that in 1605 they formed a plot for blowing up 
the king and his parliament. Eor this purpose, Robert 
Catesby, Thomias Winter, Guy Fawkes, and several 
others, bound themselves by an oath to accomplish 
their design. A cellar under the House of Lords was 
hired and filled with several barrels of gunpowder. 
As the time, November 5th, 1605, for carrying out the 
plan was approaching, some of the conspirators, wish- 
ing to save their friends who were members of the 
House, warned them of the danger by anonymous 
letters. One of these letters was sent to Lord Mount- 
eagle, and this led to the discovery of the whole scheme. 
AVhen the cellar was searched, Guy Fawkes was found 
concealed in it, and the train laid. He was at once 
arrested, and upon hearing this, the other conspirators 
fled to Dunchurch and thence to Holbeach, in Stafford- 
shire ; but they were pursued by the sheriffs with a 
body of armed men. The house in which they had 
taken refuge being attacked, some were taken prisoners, 
and others mortally wounded. Those who were taken 
were executed as traitors in January, 1606. The con- 
sequence of this plot was, that parliament enacted still 
severer laws against the Catholics, who were now com- 



1603—1625.] JAMES I. 151 

pelled to swear tliat they abliorred the doctrine that 
kings excommunicated by the pope might be deposed 
or murdered by their subjects. 

James at all times showed great partiality for his own 
country, upon which he lavished wealth and honours, 
perhaps in the hope that thereby he might reconcile 
the Scotch to a real union with England ; but in the 
latter country, it only roused the angry feelings of 
jealousy, and parliament, which, towards the end of 
Elizabeth's reign, had shown some symptoms of a spirit 
of independence, became more and more resolute in its 
oiDposition to the king's views, who maintained that 
parliamentary privileges were only matters of royal 
favour and not of right. As James was unable to induce 
parliament to vote as much money as he wanted, all 
kinds of expedients were resorted to, to make up the 
deficiency: peerages, baronetcies (which were first 
established in Ireland to protect the parts colonized by 
English), honours, and places, w^ere sold for money, 
while public servants often received no pay, and had 
to support themselves by bribes and peculation. The 
House of Commons persisted in complaining of these 
and other abuses, and the king, with his notion about 
the divine right of kings, found, to his vexation, that 
parliament was no longer as pliable as it had been, and 
that it insisted upon having a voice in all matters 
afi'ecting the interests of the kingdom. 

In 1612, Eobert Cecil, his principal adviser, and his 
eldest son Henry, died ; and in the following year, his 
daughter Elizabeth married Frederick, the elector 
palatine of the Ehine, from which marriage sprang the 
Hanoverian line of our rulers. After Cecil's death, 
Eobert Carr became James' prime minister and favourite. 
This man, who had originally been a page of a Scotch 
noble, had risen through the king's favour to the highest 
position in the kingdom. He ultimately married the 
young countess of Essex, who was divorced from her 
husband, and that Carr might be equal to her in rank, 
he was created duke of Somerset. His influence with 
the king roused the jealousy of other courtiers, who 
began to intrigue against him. A young man named 



152 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. X. 

George Villiers was introduced and recommended to 
the king, and soon became a formidable rival of Somer- 
set. In 1615, events occurred whicb proved to be the 
ruin of Somerset. Sir Thomas Overbury, who had 
always acted as a faithful friend to Somerset, expressed 
his disapproval of the marriage with the countess of 
Essex, and the latter on being informed of this resolved 
to wreak her vengeance on Overbury. By intrigues, 
she and her husband got him lodged in the Tower, 
where soon after he was found dead. An investigation 
was instituted, and several persons who had been ac- 
complices in the murder were executed, but Somerset 
and the countess for the moment escaped condemnation. 
In 1616, however, both were arraigned before their 
peers, and although they were found guilty, the punish- 
ment inflicted on them was only imprisonment in 
the Tower. They were indeed afterwards liberated, 
but ended their lives in obscurity and infamy. After 
Somerset's fall, the power of Yilliers became para- 
mount, and remained so to the end of James' reign. 
He passed successively through all the stages of the 
peerage, and was in the end created duke of Bucking- 
hauL Through his influence, Walter Ealeigh was 
released from the Tower, where he had been imprisoned 
for thirteen years. On his liberation, Raleigh proposed 
to the king to undertake an expedition to Guiana, 
where he hoped to find gold. He went out with 
fifteen armed ships, but as the undertaking was unsuc- 
cessful, he was, on his return, again cast into prison ; 
and to please the Spaniards, with whom Ealeigh had 
come into collision on his expedition, James caused this 
able and brave admiral to be executed in 1618. The 
tmwarrantable deed, which was simply a judicial 
murder, combined with other causes, made James very 
unpopular. When parliament met in 1621, great 
efforts were made to remove abuses and grievances; 
the House of Commons even went so far as to impeach 
the Lord Chancellor, the renowned Francis Bacon, 
viscount of St. Albans, for bribery and corruption. He 
was found guilty, ordered to pay a fine of £40,000, to 
be imprisoned during the king's pleasure, andcleclared 



1603—1625.] JAMES I. 153 

incapable of holding any public office. Tbe fine and 
imprisonment were afterwards remitted. 

Negotiations bad. b^en going on for some time to 
bring about tbe marriage of James' son Cbarles with 
the infanta of Spain, although the scheme was very 
Unpopular in England, and not much liked by the king 
himself. But Buckingham strongly urged the advan- 
tages of such a union, and the king at last consented. In 
1623, Buckingham accompanied the prince to Spain, but 
his insolent behaviour so much offended the Spaniards, 
that the plan had to be given up. Buckingham, in his 
vexation, now openly showed his dislike of the 
Spaniards, which made him popular at home ; he even 
got the government to declare war against Spain, and 
parliament to vote a large sum of money to carry it on ; 
but no results were obtained. 

The reign of James I., of which not much good can 
be said, except that his autocratic views caused the 
parliament to assert and maintain its own rights, is 
remarkable for the system of colonization which was 
carried out on a larger scale than before. In Ireland, 
vast tracts of land, had fallen to the crown, and it was 
resolved to ]3lant colonies of English and Scotch in 
Ulster, Munster, and other parts where the settlers 
received lands. This became the origin of the towns 
of Londonderry and Coleraine. In North America, 
also, English colonies were planted: in 1610, New- 
foundland was colonised, and ten years later a body of 
non-conformists, known by the name of the Pilgrim 
Fathers, formed the nucleus of the New England 
states, by founding the town of New Plymouth. It 
may also be noticed that the charter granted by Eliza- 
beth in 1600 to the East India Company was renewed 
in perpetuity in 1609. 

James I. died at Theobalds, near Cheshunt, in Hert- 
fordshire, March 27th, 1625. He was not without 
some good qualities, and possessed a considerable 
amount of learning, which he used to display in a 
pedantic manner ; but these qualities were eclipsed by 
an inordinate conceit of his own wisdom and of his 
almost divine power as a king. He was awkward in 



1 54 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. X 

his person and "ungainly in his manners ; his govern- 
ment, notwithstanding his arrogance, was weak and 
feeble, as he allowed himself to he guided by favonrites 
whose character he was unable to discern. He Avas 
married to Anne, daughter of Frederick II. of Den- 
mark, by whom he had three children, Henry, who 
died in 1612 ; Charles, who succeeded him ; and Eliza- 
beth, who was married to the elector Palatine, 

2. CHARLES I, 1625—1649. 

Charles, the only surviving son of James I., a few 
months after his father's death, married the Catholic 
princess, Henrietta Maria, a daughter of Henry lY., 
of France. Ever since Buckingham had risen to 
power and influence, Charles had allowed himself to 
be guided by him to his own and the country's misfor- 
tune. His queen, a woman of a violent temper, is also 
said to have exercised an undue influence over him, 
and to have led him to adopt measures which could 
not but provoke most serious opposition among his 
subjects, and ultimately brought him to the scafibld. 

There still were many grievances at home to be 
redressed, but Charles allowed himself to be persuaded 
by Buckingham to engage in a war against Spain. 
When he demanded from parliament £700,000 for this 
purpose, the majority voted only £140,000, and 
poundage and tonnage for one year only, a sum which 
was barely sufficient to carry on the business of the 
government. Parliament, in fact, refused to vote 
money for the war, until the king had shown what 
policy he meant to adopt, and until the conduct of 
Buckingham, who was the cause of the war, should 
have been inquired into. The king, in order to save 
his favourite, abruptly dissolved parliament, and en- 
deavoured to obtain the money by arbitrary and irre- 
gular exactions. When this method failed, a new 
parliament was summoned in 1626, Charles taking care 
that the best and most patriotic men should not be 
present in it. But he nevertheless found this parlia- 
ment as determined as its predecessor not to vote 



1625—1649.] CHAELES I. 155 

money until tlie grievances were removed ; they even 
resolved to impeach Buckingham, who was looked 
upon as the author and supporter of most of tho abuses 
in the administration. The king was indignant at 
seeing his minister thus treated by parliament, and as, 
nevertheless, they began their proceedings against him, 
he again dissolved them. 

All manner of illegal means were now resorted to to 
obtain the money. Many gentlemen, who protested 
against them, were brought to trial, and the servile 
judges declared the king's proceedings justified, 
although they were in direct violation of the Great 
Charter. "While he was thus struggling with diffi- 
culties, he felt himself obliged to declare war against 
France for the protection of the Huguenots, who v/ere 
besieged at Rochelle by the French government. Buck- 
ingham was sent out with an armed force, but had to 
return home without having effected anything. This 
disgrace, and the great loss of men, caused universal 
indignation, and Charles being in most urgent want of 
money, summoned a third parliament. The commons, 
with great liberality, promised five subsidies, on con- 
dition that the king should grant them what is known 
as the Petition of Right, which consisted of four 
articles : — 1 . That no man should be compelled to pay 
any money to the state unless ordered by an act of 
parliament ; 2. That no man should be imprisoned for 
refusing to pay such money, and that no free man 
should be imprisoned without cause being shown ; 
3. That soldiers and marines should not be billeted on 
private persons; and 4. That no more commissions 
should be issued for punishing persons by martial law, 
Charles, after much hesitation and attempts at evasion, 
sanctioned the articles. 

Two months later Buckingham, who was preparing 
a new expedition to aid the Protestants at Eochelle, 
was assassinated at Portsmouth by a man who thought 
that he was doing a service to his country, but was 
afterwards executed for his crime. When parliament 
re-assembled in 1629 it censured the government for 
having neglected to give effective help to tho Protest- 



156 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. X, 

ants at Eoclielle, who, in tlieir despair, had been obliged 
to surrender ; and seeing that those clergymen who 
justified the arbitrary doings of the king were favoured 
and promoted, parliament declared them, as well as 
the promoters of Catholicism, to be enemies to the king- 
dom. These proceedings irritated the king to such a 
degree that he again dissolved parliament, adding the 
threat that " those vipers of the Commons should soon 
receive their reward." Some of the leaders of the 
Commons were at once imprisoned and fined. 

With France and Spain a peace was concluded in 
1630. After having dismissed his third parliament, 
Charles made up his mind henceforth to govern the 
kingdom as an absolute monarch, without parliament. 
The government was now conducted in the most arbi- 
trary manner : royal proclamations were issued with 
the force of laws, illegal imports were laid on mer- 
chandise, monopolies were established, and enormous 
fines were inflicted for disobedience, and often on most 
frivolous pretexts. The Star Chamber and the Court 
of High Commission were the ready instruments em- 
ployed for these purposes, and Archbishop Laud, and 
Wentworth, a renegade, who, in 1632, was made a 
peer and governor of Ireland, were the king's chief 
advisers in these proceedings. Laud had been Bishop 
of London, and in 1633 was made Archbishop of Can- 
terbury, chiefly because he entertained the most ex- 
travagant notions about the royal authority. His 
oppressive and cruel measures were endless, but his 
rage was especially shown against the Puritans and 
those who opposed prelacy. Thus Dr. Leighton, a 
Scotch clergyman who had written a book called 
" Sion's plea against Prelates," had to pay a fine of 
£10,000, was publicly whipped, had his ears cut off', 
his nostrils slit, and his cheeks branded with the let- 
ters S. S, (sower of sedition). Another mau, a barrister 
named Prynne, was punished in a similar manner for 
having published a book against theatres entitled 
" Histriomastix." 

One of these obnoxious exactions led to consequences 
"which were of the greatest service to constitutional 



1625—1649.] CHAKLES I. 157 

freedom. This was the impost called sliip-money, 
which, was levied in London and other seaports. They 
were ordered to furnish a certain number of ships in 
1638, but in the next year the same demand was also 
made upon inland towns. This created great discon- 
tent, and John Hampden, a gentlemen of Buckingham- 
shire, refused to pay the tax, though it amounted to 
only £1, for he was resolved to have the legality of the 
tax tried in a court of law. Only two out of twelve 
judges had the courage to declare that the tax was 
unlawful, and Hampden was condemned, 1637. The 
verdict, however, created great excitement, and was 
generally looked upon as unjust and unconstitutional, 
and the people henceforth paid the tas: v/ith greater 
reluctance than before. 

In Scotland, especially, the proceedings of Laud and 
his party made a deep impression, the Presbyterians 
being utterly opposed to the English church system. 
In 1633 Charles, accompanied by Laud, had visited 
Scotland in the hope of being able to introduce the 
English liturgy there, but no open attempt had then 
been made. Soon after a book of canons and the liturgy 
was drawn up for the use of the Scottish church. The 
first Sunday they were used in Edinburgh, in 1637, 
the congregation became excited to such a degree that 
they attacked the minister with stools and sticks, and 
anything that came to hand ; with difficulty he escaped 
in the crowd assembled outside. Similar scenes oc- 
curred in other places, and the new forms of service 
had to be suspended, though the magistrates were 
commanded by the government with threats to enforce 
their use. Nearly all Scotland was determined to resist 
these encroachments on its religious freedom, and when 
petitions against the use of the Prayer Book were of no 
avail, four " tables," or committees, were formed, con- 
sisting of noblemen, gentlemen, ministers, and bur- 
gesses, who framed what is called the '' National 
Covenant." In it almost all Scotchmen bound them- 
selves to resist any attempt to alter the Presbyterian 
form of worship, 1688. A meeting of the General 
Assembly was held in Glasgow, in which such uncom- 



158 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. X. 

promising hostility was shown to episcopacy that the 
royal commissioner declared the Assembly dissolved ; 
but the members refused to separate, and by a series of 
resolutions abolished the liturgy, the canons, and the 
whole hierarchical system, which the king had set his 
heart upon introducing. 

At the same time the Scotch made most active pre- 
parations to meet force by force. Laud and Wentworth 
advised their master to enter into no compromise, but 
to assert his authority by armed force. As Charles' 
finances were exhausted, he very reluctantly sum- 
moned his fourth parliament, 1640, demanding as sub- 
sidies nearly a million of money ; but the House of 
Commons insisted upon investigating and removing 
grievances before voting the supplies. The king, how- 
ever, wanting money, and not discussion, this par- 
liament also was dissolved before it had sat three 
weeks. When this became known in Scotland, the 
people, being sure that no satisfactory result could 
be gained by negotiation, resolved at once to take up 
arms. A Scotch army, under the command of the brave 
Leslie, accordingly crossed the Tweed, defeated Lord 
Conway on the banks of the Tyne, and took possession 
of Newcastle. Charles then assembled at York a great 
council of peers, who advised him to summon par- 
liament, and commence negotiations with Scotland. 
Eepresentatives of both countries then met at Eipon, 
where it was agreed to suspend hostilities until the 
parliaments of the two nations should have settled the 
matter in dispute, and that in the meantime the Scotch 
army should receive a weekly subsidy of £5600. 

The parliament now summoned, the renowned Long 
Parliament, met in November, 1640, and was not finally 
dissolved until 1660. The members, on their assem- 
bling, showed at once that they were in earnest? to remove 
the grievances and devise measures to re-establish 
constitutional liberty. Leighton, Prynne, and others 
were released from imprisonment and compensated, 
and Wentworth, who had in the meantime been created 
Earl of Strafford, was impeached for high treason an.d 
lodged in the Tower, by the order of his peers, 



1625—1649.] CHARLES I. 159 

was belieaded in the year following, having been found 
guilty. Laud also, and other high functionaries were 
soon after committed to the Tower.; some, fearing a 
similar fate, fled to the Continent. In 1641 a series of 
most important measures were passed, suppressing ty- 
rannical abuses of the royal prerogative. The English 
and Scotch armies were disbanded, and Charles, going 
to Scotland, where parliament was likewise assembled, 
made very ample concessions to the Presbyterians ; 
but they placed little confidence in them, although some 
of their very leaders were raised to high honours and 
offices, for Leslie was created Earl of Leven, and Argyle, 
the chief of the Covenanters, received the title of 
marquis. 

Strafford, who had governed Ireland since 1633, had 
offended and insulted all parties by setting up his own 
authority above that of the law courts. He had im- 
posed arbitrary taxes, and levied them by military 
force ; he had established monopolies for his own bene- 
fit, and had forbidden any person to leave the island 
without his permission. But what was felt more 
bitterly than anything else was the laws against 
Catholics, which were enforced with the utmost rigour. 
When the Irish saw the distracted state of England, 
and heard of the concessions made to the Scotch, they 
resolved to gain similar advantages for themselves. A 
formidable rebellion accordingly broke out in October, 
1641, headed by Eoger Moore and Sir Philem O'lSFeale. 
The rebels acted with the most merciless cruelty to- 
wards all Protestants, massacring indiscriminately 
men, women, and children. Between forty and fifty 
thousand persons are said to have been murdered, and 
some with the most savage tortures. The king was 
suspected of having secretly fostered the rebellion as 
a demonstration against the English parliament, and 
the suspicion derives some support from his own words, 
which he wrote to his secretary : " I hope this ill news 
of Ireland will hinder some of these follies in England." 
The rebellion continued for several years before it 
could be crushed. 

When Charles returned' from Scotland, he was 



160 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [CllAP. X 

heartily welcomed by the citizens of London. Par- 
liament perceiving this, and hearing at the same time 
of the Irish rebellion, became greatly alarmed. They 
doubted the king's sincerity, and were afraid lest, un- 
less they obtained better guarantees, the king might 
seize on any favourable opportunity to crush the na- 
tional liberties. They accordingly drew up and pub- 
lished a paper containing two hundred and six articles, 
called the " Eemonstrance of the State of the King- 
dom," in which they set forth all the grievances from 
the beginning of Charles' reign, the beneficial measures 
they themselves had passed, and the obstructions they 
had met with. The object, apparently, was to increase 
the prevailing dissatisfaction. It was on this occasion 
that parliament first appeared divided into two parties, 
the Cavaliers, or court party, and the Roundheads, the 
country or parliamentary party. The latter, consisting 
of such men as Pym, Hampden, Cromwell, and St. John, 
distrusted the king, and wished for stronger checks 
upon his power. The bishops were suspected of being 
the chief obstructors of liberal measures, and one of their 
number having been insulted by the mob outside the 
House, several of them signed a protest, declaring that 
they would not attend the meetings of the House, and 
would regard all acts passed in their absence as null 
and void. Irritated by this step, the House impeached 
them for treason, and the Lords approving of the im- 
peachment ordered the bishops to be committed to the 
Tower, December, 1641. 

In January, 1642, the king ventured upon a desperate 
step to recover his authority — the attorney-general was 
ordered to proceed to the House of Lords, and accuse of 
high treason Lord Kimbolton, Pym, Hampden, HoUis, 
and Haslerig, the most distinguished leaders of the 
parliamentary party. As the House refused to give 
them up, the king himself on the next day appeared 
with a strong body-guard in the House of Commons 
with the intention of seizing the accused. But they 
were not present that day, having received information 
about the design of the king, who had to withdraw in 
utter confusion. In this proceeding Charles had com- 



1625—1649.] CHARLES I. 161 

mitted an unconstitutional act, and it may be said tliat 
the revolution commenced on that day. Both parties 
prepared for war, though negotiations were still going 
on. The queen was sent to Holland, to solicit help 
from foreign powers. Parliament called the militia to 
arms, and the king, who had gone to York, summoned 
the gentry of the county to form a guard for the pro- 
tection of his person. Many noblemen, and more than 
sixty members of the House of Commons, obeying the 
king's command, declared that, as loyal subjects, they 
could no longer attend the parliament in London. 

War was thus declared, and both parties made active 
preparations for the civil strife. The royal party was 
joined by three-fourths of the nobility and the princi23al 
gentry with their retainers ; the parliamentary party 
consisted of the citizens of the great towns and the 
yeomen of the country. The land forces of the latter 
were commanded by the Earl of Essex, while the fleet 
was intrusted to the Earl of Warwick. Charles raised 
his standard at Nottingham, August, 1642. The first 
battle was fought in October, at Edgehill, in which 
the royalists, on the whole, gained some advantages, in 
consequence of which many who had hitherto been 
wavering joined them. It would be useless here 
to give an account of the many battles that were 
fought, suffice it to say that the royalists, on the whole, 
were gaining ground, that in London a conspiracy was 
formed in favour of the king, and that the parliamentary 
party for a time seemed gradually to lose in power and 
influence. Li one of the engagements Hampden was 
mortally wounded, and died soon after. The civil war 
was raging in all parts of the country, thousands of 
men were killed on both sides, and towns and villages 
were exposed to fearful sufi'erings. 

Oliver Cromwell had already given proofs of his skill 
and wisdom as a military commander, and was busily 
engaged in endeavouring to remedy the defects of the 
parliamentary army. The men under his command 
belonged, for the most part, to the sect of the Inde- 
pendents. The parliamentary army solicited the assist- 
ance of the Scotch against their common opponents, 



162 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. X. 

and the Scotcli promised compliance on condition that 
their troops should be maintained at the expense of the 
English, that parliament should recognise and sign 
the solemn " league and covenant," and that the church 
of England should be reformed according to the word of 
God. Both houses of parliament accepted the terms, 
and early in 1644, an army of 20,000 Scotchmen crossed 
the border. At the same time, an assembly of divines 
met at Westminster to consider the reforms to be made 
in the English church, and to promote uniformity in. 
worship, in other words, to substitute presbyterianism 
for episcopacy. 

Meanwhile, the king sLimmoned those members of 
parliament who were still loyal to him to meet at 
Oxford, but this counter-parliament led to no useful 
results. The English troops still engaged against the 
Irish rebels, were recalled by Charles, who made certain 
concessions to the rebels, in order to strengthen the 
royal army. But this reinforcement was nearly anni- 
hilated in its first encounter with the parliamentarians 
at Nantwich. The Scotch army had, in the meantime, 
advanced as far as York, and joined the parliamenta- 
rians under Fairfax. A fierce battle was fought at 
Marston Moor in 1644, in which the royalists were 
utterly routed, chiefly by the body of troops commanded 
by Cromwell, called " Ironsides." Through this battle, 
in which 4000 men were killed, Charles lost the 
northern part of his kingdom, and if Essex had been 
more active and circumspect in the west, the king 
would have been obliged to surrender or take to flight. 

During the greater part of the year 1644, the trial 
of Laud had been going on, and in the end, the prelate 
was declared guilty of high treason, and at the age of 
seventy, was executed in January, 1645. A vain 
attempt was again made at Uxbridge to bring about 
an understanding between the two contending parties. 
The English parliament perceiving that some of the 
commanders of its forces were becoming rather luke- 
warm, passed a self-denying ordinance, that no member 
of parliament should in future be entrusted with any 
command, either civil or military. Essex, and others, 



1625—1649.] CHARLES I. 163 

feeling tliat tliey were aimed at, at once resigned, and 
the cliief command was entrusted to Fairfax. Crom- 
well, who ought to have retired likewise, remained 
commander of the cavalry, becanse Fairfax declared 
that he could not well dispense with his services, for 
Cromwell had latterly taken a leading part in the re- 
organization of the army. 

The royalists, after some nnimportant skirmishes, 
met the new parliamentary army at Naseby, in Jitne, 
1645, and suffered so severe a defeat, that for the pre- 
sent the civil war seemed to be at an end. The victory 
was mainly owing to the valour and skill of Cromwell. 
The king's correspondence fell into the hands of the 
conquerors, and from this, it became evident that the 
king had never been sincere in making any con- 
cessions. 

Charles now retreated to Wales, and thence went to 
Oxford, which was still loyal. He had j)laced his hope 
upon the earl of Montrose, who supported his cause in 
Scotland and Lad gained several victories ; but in Sep- 
tember, Montrose was completely defeated near Selkirk. 
After the battle of Kaseby, the most important towns 
in the west were taken by Fairfax and Cromwell, and 
the former noAv proceeded to lay siege to Oxford. The 
king, afraid of being taken prisoner, made his escape, 
and after much uncertainty as to what to do, surrendered 
himself to the Scotch army, which had advanced south 
as far as Newark (May, 1646). Parliament hearing of 
this, demanded that he should be delivered up to them, 
but the Scotch, unwilling to let him slip out of their 
hands, took him with them on their march to the 
north. They tried to induce him to establish presby- 
terianism throughout his dominions, but to no purpose. 
The English parliament also made proposals that led 
to no result. At last an arrangement was made with 
the Scotch, who offered to withdraw their troops on 
condition that parliament should pay them £400,000 
for past services. Charles was then given] up to the 
English, January, 1647, who assigned to him Holmby 
House, in Northamptonshire, as his residence. 

No sooner was this first period of the civil war 



164 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [CiiAP. X. 

ended than troubles arose between parliament and the 
army. The troops, who had for some time not received 
any pay, were for the most part to be disbanded, 
and the rest was to be employed against the Irish 
rebels. This was distasteful to the army, which began 
to mutiny, and a detachment of horse contrived to 
gain possession of the king's person, and carried him 
off, first to Newmarket and then to Ham]Dton Conrt, 
where he was allowed a considerable amount of free- 
dom. Most of the members of parliament were Pres- 
byterians, while the army consisted chiefly of Inde- 
pendents ; and the latter, in defiance of parliamentary 
orders, advanced towards London, demanding the im- 
peachment of several members. These members at 
once withdrew, and Fairfax with his army entered 
London without opposition, and all the measures which 
had been voted against the army were at once annulled. 

Proposals were in the meantime made to Charles by 
the army to restore him to his throne, ^n certain 
terms; but he was inflexible, and haughtily rejected 
every proposal, for he could not give ujo the hope that 
affairs would soon take a different turn, and enable him 
to dictate terms both to parliament and the army. 
The levellers, or the more democratic part of the army, 
now declared their determination to make no more 
proposals to the king, and even blamed their com- 
manders for what they had done. Cromwell, who 
belonged to the moderate party, found that he was 
suspected of trying to make his peace with the army ; 
and the king thinking that his life was in danger, 
secretly escaped from Hampton Court to the Isle of 
Wight. The army then resolved that the king should 
be brought to trial, and Cromwell and his friends, after 
much doubt and hesitation, signified their adhesion to 
the measure. 

While the king was at Carisbrooko Castle, in the 
Isle of Wight, parliament, about the end of 1647, 
made another attempt at reconciliation; but as the 
Scotch, with whom the king had opened communica- 
tions, offered easier terms, he again refused to treat with 
parliament, which now broke off all further dealings 



162S— 1649.] CHAELEg I. 165 

witH him (January, 1648). Upon this, a reaction seems 
to liave taken place in various quarters in favour of tile 
king. In the west, an army of Welslimen was raised 
Tby colonel Foyer to support the sovereign, and the 
Scotch army, under the duke of Hamilton, with the 
same view, advanced as far as Preston. But Cromwell 
and Fairfax crushed both these attempts, and Crom- 
well passed into Scotland to prevent any further rising 
there. 

During this second period of the civil war, the Pres- 
byterians in parliament, from fear of the army, and 
notwithstanding their previous vote, again entered 
into negotiations with the king, and things seemed to 
be promising, though Charles still refused to give up 
episcopacy ; when, on the 6th of November, the army 
put a stop to these proceedings ; Colonel Pride, with 
three regiments, " purified " the house, by preventing 
upwards of one hundred members, opposed to the army, 
from entering. The remaining members, called the 
Rump Parliament, ordered the king to be brought to 
Windsor, and to be tried for high treason against his 
people. 

The House of Lords disapproved of the step, but the 
Commons nominated a commission of one hundred and 
fifty members, who were to try the king in "West- 
minster Hall. Charles protested agpJnst the proceed- 
ings, declaring that, as king, he recognised no superior 
on earth. The trial lasted from the 20th to the 27th 
of January, 1649, and after the evidence had been 
heard, the commissioners pronounced the verdict, " that 
Charles Stuart, as a tyrant, traitor, murderer, and 
public enemy to the good people of this nation, be 
put to death by having his head severed from his 
body." 

The night after the condemnation, Charles passed 
with Juxon, bishop of London, in pious meditations, 
and on the 29th took leave of his children and 
friends. On the 30th he was taken from St. James' to 
Whitehall, and after spending there a few hours in 
religious exercises, he was beheaded on a scaffold. 
Throughout his reign, Charles had shown himself as a 



166 HISTORY OF ENaiiAND. [Chap. X. 

tyrant, wliose words and promises could not be trusted i 
but still bis execution was not only a crime, but a 
political blunder, for those wbo brought bim to tbe 
scaffold so ill contrived matters, " that tbe very man 
whose whole life had been a series of attacks on the 
liberties of England, now seemed to die a martyr in the 
cause of those liberties." 

Charles had six children, two of whom— Charles and 
James— succeeded him on the Endish throne. 



3. THE COMMONWEALTH, 1649—1660. 

Immediately after Charles' death, the Eump parlia- 
ment declared it high treason to proclaim anyone king, and 
the House of Lords was abolished and declared useless 
and dangerous. The executive authority was entrusted 
for one year to a commission of forty-one persons, of 
which Bradshaw was president and Milton foreign 
secretary. Every member had to take an oath approv- 
ing of the abolition of royalty and the House of Lords. 

The republican government was, on the whole, 
carried on with moderation ; but a number of the sup- 
porters of the late king were brought to trial, and the 
duke of Hamilton and the earl of Holland were con- 
demned for high treason and executed ; while others 
were committed to the Tower. Much discontent also 
showed itself in the army, but was crushed by severe 
measures. 

The disturbed state of Ireland required immediate 
attention, for on the death of Charles, the marquis of 
Ormond proclaimed his son Charles II., king of Eng- 
land. There were still several armies in Ireland acting 
independently of one another and supporting different 
parties. The most powerful among them was the 
Catholic party under Ormond, which had posses- 
sion of nearly the whole country ; only Dublin, Belfast, 
and Londonderry being still held by the parliamentary 
army. Cromwell was appointed Lord Lieutenant, and 
with twelve thousand men, and a strong train of 
artillery, landed at Dublin, He opened the cam- 



1649—1660.] TU^ COMMONWEALTH. 167 

paign with, tlie siege of Drogiieda, whicb. was taken 
after a few assaults, and the wliole garrison was piit to 
the sword. A similar scene took place at Wexford, 
where 2000 of the enemy were slain, and the terror 
inspired by these massacres, led other towns to throw 
open their gates. Early in 1650, a second campaign 
was commenced, during which several towns surren- 
dered without resistance. Clonmel eJone defended 
itself bravely. 

After this, Cromwell was recalled on accctunt of the 
threatening attitude of Scotland. He left Ireton, his 
son-in-law, to complete the subjugation of Ireland ; 
but this was not effected till a later period by the fall 
of Limerick. Ireton, himself, died soon after, and 
the affairs of Ireland were settled by Fleetwood and 
Henry Cromwell. The danger from Scotland arose in 
this way. "When Charles II. found that he could 
expect no help from Ireland, he listened to the proposals 
of the Scotch parliament, which was indignant at the 
execution of the king. They pi'omised to support him, 
if he would sanction the solemn league and covenant. 
But before taking any decisive step, he wished to wait 
for the result of Montrose's enterprise, who had raised 
the royal standard in the north. Montrose failed, and 
the unfortunate nobleman was executed in Edinburgh 
for high treason. Charles sacrificed his friend by per- 
fidiously declaring that Montrose had ventured upon the 
enterprise against his special orders. Charles now 
signed the covenant promising not to permit Catholics 
to worship in his dominions, and declared the peace 
with Ireland null and void. Upon this, the Scotch 
raised an army to support him ; but the English 
government, determined not to be behind-hand, sent 
Cromwell, with an army of 16,000 men, into Scotland. 

On his arrival near Edinburgh, he found the Scotch, 
under the command of David Leslie, entrenched in a 
very strong position. As the country between tlio 
Tweed and Forth had been completely devastated, and 
Cromwell's army began to suffer from want and 
disease, he retreated towards Dunbar. The Scotch 
followed him, and rendered the position of the Eug- 



168 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [ChAp. %. 

lisli very perilous. But Cromwell having sagaciously 
discovered that they had made a wrong move, ex- 
claimed : " The Lord has delivered them into our 
hands," and a terrible contest ensued, in Avliich the 
Scotch lost 3000 dead, and 10,000 prisoners. All mili- 
tary stores, and the whole country south of the Forth, 
fell into Cromwell's hands. 

Charles escaped to Perth, and having formed con- 
nections with other royalists in the north, caused him- 
self to he crowned king at Scone,* 1651. Cromwell, 
after a short illness, proceeded to Perth, of which he 
took possession, but learning that Charles had collected 
a force of about 11,000 men, and was on the march to 
invade England, he hastened in pursuit of the enemy, 
and brought him to a stand near Worcester. There 
the royalists were utterly defeated ; Charles fled, and 
after many wanderings, reached Fecamp, in Normandy. 

This glorious and decisive victory (September, 1651) 
raised Cromwell's military reputation to the highest 
pitch, and he wisely proclaimed an amnesty, which 
gained him friends even among the royalists. Monk 
completed the subjugation of Scotland, which was then 
incorporated with England. 

William, the Stadtholder of the Dutch Eepublic, 
who had married Mary, daughter of Charles I., disliked 
the proceedings of the English parliament, and there 
was good reason for fearing a dangerous collision be- 
tween the two republics ; for many of the English 
royalists had found shelter and protection in Hol- 
land, and the attempt to form an alliance with the 
Dutch met with no favour in this country. Communi- 
cation with the Dutch was broken off, and a navigation 
act was passed, which greatly injured their commerce. 
War was thus inevitable, and even before it was 
formally declared, a battle was fought in the Downs 
between the Dutch fleet under Van Tromp and the 
English under Blake. Several engagements afterwards 
took place, but without any decisive results, until at 
last Van Tromp attacked Blake near the Goodwin 
Sands and defeated him. The victory elated the Dutch 
eo mtich, tJiat they threatened to sweep the English 



164:9—1660.] THE COMMONWEALTH. 169 

from tlieir own seas. Three more battles, lioweveir, 
were fought, in each of which the Dutch were worsted, 
and lost many ships and men. This first war with the 
Dutch was concluded by a treaty at AVestminster, 1654, 
in which the Dutch promised to cease protecting English 
royalists, to honour the English flag, and to indemnify 
some English merchants for the losses they had sus- 
tained during the war. 

We have already seen that, after the battle of Wor- 
cester, Cromwell was looked upon as the first man in 
the kingdom, and he well deserved it. But parliament 
began to be jealous of his power, and tried to weaken it 
by reducing the army. He, however, was more than a 
match for them. He ordered a company of musketeers 
to accompany him to the House : he left them in the 
lobby, and after some violent altercation with his oppo- 
nents, called in his soldiers, cleared the house, and put 
the keys in his pocket (April, 1653). This act of 
violence did not create much excitement among the 
people, who had long been dissatisfied with the pro- 
ceedings of parliament. 

Cromwell, and the council of state, which was formed, 
at once resolved to call a new parliament ; but instead 
of its being elected in the usual way, Cromwell drew 
up a list of about one hundred and forty persons, who 
were deemed " faithful, fearing God, and hating covet- 
ousness." They were mostly illiterate and fanatical 
p>ersons, belonging to the sect of Independents ; one of 
its members, Barebones, a leather merchant, was a 
leading man among them, whence the parliament was 
nicknamed the Barebones parliament. The proceed- 
ings of this little assembly were characterised by great 
vigour in remedying what they considered defects in 
the law and government, whereby they irritated influ- 
ential portions of the community. At last they sur- 
rendered their power into the hands of Cromwell, who, 
in December, 1653, was made Lord Protector of the 
Commonwealth, and took an oath that he would 
observe a series of articles called the " Instrument of 
Government." The chief points of this document were 
that the legislative joower should be vested in the 



170 HISTOHY OF ENGLAND. [Chap, X. 

protector and tlie parliament, that he should be assisted 
by a council, with which he should have the power of 
peace and, war, that parliament should be summoned 
every third year, sit at least five months, and consist 
of four hundred and sixty members ; that there should 
be an army of 30,000 men, and that all religions should 
be protected, except the Catholics and Prelatists. 

The new form of government was readily recognised 
by foreign powers, which even courted the protector's 
friendship ; and with Holland an offensive and defen- 
sive alliance was concluded. The new parliament met 
in September, 1654, but as it spent most of its time in 
attempts to curtail the power of the protector, to alter 
the " Instrument," and manifested great intolerance in 
religious matters, Cromwell dissolved it after a session 
of scarcely five months. Several conspiracies were also 
formed against him, both by royalists and republicans, 
but they were easily suppressed by his vigilance. As 
parliament had voted no supplies, Cromwell w^as 
obliged to levy taxes u]3on his own authority ; but as 
they were very moderate, they were j)aid with little 
opposition. 

As the protector did not wish to govern without a 
parliament, a new one was summoned 'to meet in Sep- 
tember, 1656; from this, however, about one hundred 
members were excluded, merely because they did not 
seem to meet the requirements of Cromwell. Its pro- 
ceedings at first satisfied him, and it even went so far 
in its desire to j)lease him, as to ofier him the title of 
king. He himself- would not have objected to this, 
but the leaders of the army w^ere vehemently opposed 
to it, and he therefore reluctantly declined the honour. 
The commons then passed an act called " The humble 
petition and advice," which empowered the protector to 
name his successor and to create a house of peers, which 
was, however, to be called simply " the other house." 
After this, in June, 1657, Cromwell was solemnly in- 
augurated in Westminster Hall as Lord Protector. 

He was now the sovereign of England in all but in 
name. But the task before him was one of extreme 
difiiculty. Consj)iracies against his life continued to 



1649— 1G60.] THE COMMONWEALTH. 171 

be formed, and Charles even offered rewards to any one 
wlio would assassinate liim. Besides this, the country- 
was divided by parties, among which, the stern repub- 
licans were thoroughly opposed to his government. 
The second parliament met in January, 1658, in two 
houses ; the upper house, selected by the protector, 
consisted for the most part of men who had played a 
conspicuous part during the preceding years, and 
created very general dissatisfaction ; for the republidans 
disapproved of a privileged class, and the people 
laughed at the house of lords, in whicli common trades- 
men sat, while the real nobility, even when invited, 
disdained to appear. When Cromwell found that the 
commons, instead of devoting themselves to useful 
business, spent their time in discussing the rights of the 
upper house and its powers, he dissolved them with the 
words, " Let God judge between you and me." 

Cromwell was thus not favoured by fortune in his 
administration of the Commonwealth, but he was more 
successful in his foreign relations. The French king 
sought his. alliance against Spain, and a united French 
and English army fought the famous battle of the 
Dunes against the Spaniards, who attempted in vain 
to relieve Dunkijk, which was besieged and taken, and 
then given to the English. They continued their ope- 
rations against the Spaniards, and a number of towns 
in the Spanish Netherlands fell into their hands. In 
the south, the duke of Savoy was comjDclled to stop the 
persecution of the protestant Waldenses, and the pirates 
in the Mediterranean were forced to respect the Eng- 
lish flag. The unceasing exertions and excitements 
had severely tried the health of the protector. Latterly, 
he suffered from an attack of gout, which was followed 
by a fever, terminating his life on the 3rd of Septem- 
ber, 1658. His body was buried in Westminster Abbey, 
and remained undisturbed until 1661, when the reac- 
tionary party disinterred it and hanged it on Tyburn 
gallows. 

Cromwell, himself, notwithstanding his sternness 
where it was necessary, would have governed his 
country mildly, liberally, and constitutionally had 



172 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. X. 

circumstances permitted him; but his parliaments, 
though carefully packed, proved unmanageable, and 
he could not act otherwise than -he did. 

Oliver Cromwell was succeeded by his son Eichard 
as quietly as if he had been the heir of a hereditary 
crown ; but he was in no way equal to his father, and 
had never shown any ambition to occupy the high 
place for which he was destined. His own relations 
despised him, because he was not a soldier, and the 
army tried to take all the powers out of his hands. 
In order to counteract these attempts, he summoned 
a parliament elected according to the old system. It 
met in January, 1659. Disputes arose between the 
commons and the army, and Richard Cromwell, yielding 
to the desires of the latter, dissolved parliament, and 
by this act virtually surrendered his powers. A few 
weeks later he formally resigned, and spent the re- 
mainder of his life partly abroad and partly at 
Cheshunt, where he died in 1712, 

The officers of the army now insisted upon the sur- 
vivors of the Eump Parliament being summoned, and a 
sufficient number met to form a house ; but this par- 
liament also quarrelled with the army, and the royalists, 
availing themselves of these troubles, organised a con- 
spiracy to effect the restoration of Charles II. For a 
time their plans seemed to succeed, but in August, 
1659, they were utterly defeated by the parliamentary 
general Lambert, at Nantwich. 

After the suppression of this conspiracy, parliament 
renewed its quarrels with the army, and Lambert and 
several others were declared dejDOsed; but Lambert, 
who placed full reliance in his troops, marched to 
Westminster and dispersed the members, and thus the 
government fell into the hands of the army. General 
Slonk, who had the chief command in Scotland, also 
resolved to march to London, but no one knew whether 
he intended to support the Commonwealth or to restore 
the king. Lambert was sent against him, but instead 
of fighting, he commenced negotiations, and at the 
desire of the Londoners, who refused to pay taxes 
unless sanctioned by parliament, the Eump Parliament 



1660—1685.] CHABLES II. 173 

was once t&ore summoned in December, 1659. After a 
very sh.6it session, it dissolved itself and ordered a 
regular parliament to he elected, wliicli was to meet in 
April, 1660. Monk now had all the power in his 
hands, and committed Lamhert to the Tower. Still no 
one knew what Monk's design was, and every one 
dreaded a fresh civil war. Lambert effected his escape, 
and assembled a body of adherents, but was defeated 
and taken prisoner. 

Before the new parliament met, Monk threw aside 
the mask : he opened negotiations with Charles, and 
concerted measures for his return. When the plan was 
sufficiently matured, Charles sent a letter to both 
houses of parliament, called the " Declaration from 
Breda," where he was staying. In it he promised to 
grant a general pardon to all who should submit 
within forty days, to allow freedom of conscience in 
matters of religion, to leave the settlement of disputed 
estates to parliament, to pay the soldiers of Monk 
their arrears, and to admit them into his service. 
Both houses received this message with enthusiastic 
joy : the restoration of the monarchy was voted, and 
Charles was at once invited to ascend the throne of 
his ancestors. He landed at Dover on the 25th of 
May, and on his progress to London, delighted every 
one by his kind manners and affability. 

4. CHARLES n. 1660—1685. 

The great body of the English people were intoxi- 
cated with joy at the restoration of the king, and at the 
prospect of a regular and tolerant government. But 
their hopes were doomed to sad disappointment. 
During the period of the Commonwealth, Charles had 
resided in various parts of the continent, and his court 
had everywhere presented scenes of licentiousness and 
debauchery. The parliament which had voted the 
restoration, generally called " The Convention Parlia- 
ment," continued its sittings until the end of 1660, 
and within that short period had to settle most im- 
portant affairs, for during the disturbances of the last 



174 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [CilAP. X. 

years, everything liacl got out of order. One of the 
most important matters was the settlement of the 
public revenue. Parliament granted the king the 
duties of .tonnage and poundage for life, and instead of 
the old feudal revenues, which were now abolished, a 
permanent excise duty on beer and some other liquors. 
The army was paid its arrears, and all the soldiers, 
except two regiments were discharged. Twenty-nine of 
the regicides were brought to trial, and ten of them 
were executed at once ; three others, who were cap- 
tured abroad, suffered death a little later. The bodies 
of Cromwell, Ireton, and Bradshaw, were disinterred 
and hanged on the gallows at Tyburn. 

In accordance with the letter from Breda, the estates 
vv^hich had changed hands during the Commonwealth, 
were to be restored wherever possible, and those who 
had purchased them were to be indemnified. But by 
the management of Clarendon, the chief minister, the 
royal and ecclesiastical estates were recovered from their 
present proprietors without any compensation. One of 
the first promises made by Charles was thus violated, as 
the settlement of the question ought to have been left 
to parliament. The promised religious freedom was 
perfidiously postponed, and parliament was dissolved 
in December without any thing being settled. 

The next parliament met in May, 1661, and con- 
sisted almost entirely of such enthusiastic royalists 
that for years they overlooked the king's profligacy 
and perfidiousness. Its first business was to settle the 
church question, with a vIcvnT to put the established 
church on a firm footing, and crush those Protestants 
who were opposed to it. Conferences of English and 
presbyterian divines were held, to make such altera- 
tions in the Prayer Book as to render it acceptable to 
the presbyterians, but no satisfactory result was ar- 
rived at, and it was only too evident that the object of 
the government was to extinguish all opposition. Par- 
liament voted that every member should take the sacra- 
ment according to the rites of the English church, and 
shortly after the " Corporation Act " was passed, or- 
daining that no man could be a member of a corporatioBj 



1660—1685.] CHARLES II. 175 

or hold any civil office in it, witlioiit renonaicing tlie 
solemn league and covenant and tlie doctrine that arms 
might be taken np against the king. 

In the next session, 1662, the "Act of Uniformity" 
was passed, which ordered that every clergyman hence- 
forth shonld use the amended Book of Common Prayer, 
and publicly declare his assent to everything contained 
in it ; disobedience was punished by expulsion from 
the living. The act further required that all clergy- 
men should receive episcopal ordination and abjure the 
league and covenant. About two thousand clergymen 
preferred losing their benefices to submitting to such 
tyrannical violence to their consciences. 

In May of the same year Charles married Catherine 
of Braganza, with whom he received as a dowry the 
sum of 350,000/., the fortress of Tangier, and the island 
of Bombay. Catherine, an excellent and virtuous 
woman, had to endure the grossest indignities from 
her dissolute husband. However, before the end of 
the year the king's extravagance compelled him to 
look about for other resources, and he sold Dunkirk 
to Louis XIV. for 40,000Z. This mean act excited 
great indignation among the people, but they cast the 
blame chiefly upon Clarendon. 

In Scotland the parliament, having at first believed 
in the promises of Charles about religious liberty, was 
soon undeceived, for episcopacy was established every- 
where, and presbyterianism seemed to be extinguished. 
The Catholics of Ireland likewise had good reason to be 
dissatisfied, few of them having their estates restored 
to them, while large grants were made to the king's 
friends and supporters, such as the dukes of York and 
Ormond. 

In the north of England some of the nonconforming 
ministers had opened private places of w^orship, which 
was made the pretext for passing the " Conventicle 
Act," 1664, which provided that all meetings of more 
than five persons, besides the members of the house- 
hold, for religious worship, not in accordance with 
the Book of Common Prayer, should be punished by 
fiiies and imprisonment, and, if persevered in, by trans- 



176 HISTOEY OP ENGLAND, [Chap. X. 

portation. In consequence of this tyrannical statute 
great numbers of nonconformists were thrown into 
prison. During the great plague, which soon after 
visited London, some of the nonconformist preachers 
occupied the vacant pulpits, and did all they could to 
comfort the sick and dying. By this they brought 
upon themselves the charge of having disseminated 
seditious opinions, and another disgraceful statute, the 
" Five Mile Act," was passed, which forbade anj dis- 
senting minister coming within five miles of any par- 
liamentary borough. They were further forbidden to 
act as tutors or schoolmasters, under a penalty of 401. 
and imprisonment. 

Ill 1664 a second war broke out with Holland, chiefly 
in consequence of commercial jealousy between the two 
countries. After several encounters of the hostile fleets 
off the coasts of Africa, America, and the West Indies, 
in which the Dutch lost several of their possessions, a 
serious engagement took place near Lowestoft, where 
the English fleet was commanded by the duke of York, 
brother of Charles II. The Dutch were defeated, and 
lost eighteen ships, four admirals, including Opdam, 
their commander-in-chief, and seven thousand men, 
while the English loss did not exceed eight hundred. 
This victory was gained at the time when the ravages 
of the plague had reached their height in London. 
That fearful scourge lasted several months, during 
which more than one hundred thousand persons in 
London became its victims. All who had the means 
left the city, and only the poorer classes remained. 

In the beginning of 1666 the Dutch allied themselves 
with Louis XIV., who had declared war against Eng- 
land. Prince Rupert and Monk, now duke of Albe- 
marle, commanded the English fleet, and a great battle 
was fought near the Goodwin Sands, which lasted for 
four days, and Monk's division would have been utterly 
destroyed had not Eupert come to the rescue. The 
Dutch gained the victory, though the losses on both 
sides were very nearly equal. In the second battle, in 
the same neighbourhood, the English were more suc- 
cessful, and afterwards chased the Dutoii to their own 



1660-1685.] CHARLES 11. 177 

coasts, where tliey destroyed a large number of ships, 
and committed many outrages. The Dutch admiral, 
De Witt, vowed not to rest until he had avenged the 
insults of the English. 

Soon after these maritime engagements, on the 2nd 

of September, 1666, another terrible calamity befell the 

city of London — a fire broke out in a baker's house in 

Pudding Lane. The houses at the time were mostly 

built of wood, and the streets were very narrow, and as 

a strong east wind was blowing the fire spread rapidly, 

and continued for three days, without any possibility 

of stopping it. When at length the wind subsided, 

and many gaps had been made to isolate the burning 

masses, the progress of the fire was checked, but not 

until London, from the Tower to the Temple, was in 

ruins. The fire had destroyed St. Paul's cathedral, 

eighty -eight churches, the Eoyal Exchange, and other 

public buildings, and thirteen thousand two hundred 

private houses. The total loss was computed at seven 

and a half millions. The fanatical hatred between 

Protestants and Catholics created the belief that the 

Catholics had been the originators of the fire, a belief 

totally devoid of foundation, though it was inscribed 

as a fact on the " Monument," from which it was not 

erased till 1830. 

De Witt ke|3t his vow. In the beginning of 1667 
Charles entered into a secret negotiation with Louis 
XIV,, and in the hojDe of a sj)eedy peace the navy was 
utterly neglected. The Dutch, perceiving this state of 
things, resolved to have their revenge. De Euyter 
appeared at the mouth of the Thames with seventy 
ships. The defences hastily constructed by Albemarle 
and York were insufficient. One portion of the Dutch 
fleet appeared off Gravesend and another sailed up the 
Medway, razing Sheerness to the ground, and doing 
great mischief all along the coast. Having thus satis- 
fied their desire for revenge, the Dutch returned home 
in triumph. This war was at last ended by the treaty 
of Breda, July 10, 1667, when it was agreed that each 
nation should retain what they possessed. 
Ever since the sale of Dunkirk, Clarendon had 



178 HISTOKY OF ENGLAND, [CiiAP X, 

become very unpopular. In, addition to jfcliis, he liad 
offended tlie presbyterians by supporting' tlie episcopal 
party, and the king by his open disapproval of the 
profligacies of the court. All these things combined 
to bring about his downfall. A strong opposition was 
formed against him, and the king advised him to resign. 
As Clarendon declined to do this, Charles ungratefully 
dismissed his ablest minister, and abandoned him to 
his enemies. Clarendon was impeached for high treason, 
but before the trial came on, the king ordered him to 
leave the country, and an act was then passed banishing 
him for life. He died at Eouen, 1G74. 

After the fall of Clarendon a new ministry was 
formed, known, by the name of the Cabal, a word made 
up of the initials of the names of the five men who 
composed it, Clifford, Arlington, Buckingham, Ashley, 
and Lauderdale. By their miserable subserviency to 
the king, and their attempts to make him an absolute 
ruler, these men have left a most unenviable reputation 
in English history. The most unprincipled among 
them were Buckingham and Ashley, afterwards earl of 
Shaftesbury ; the latter of them displayed such won- 
derful cunning and prudence that he was regarded by 
the people as endowed with almost miraculous prescience. 
Their first measure, however, seemed to promise well, 
for in 1668 they concluded the triple alliance between 
England, Holland, and Sweden, for the purpose of 
checking the attempts of Louis XIV. upon Flanders. 
Louis at last gave way, but still contrived, by the treaty 
of Aix-la-Chapelle, to obtain Lille, Tournay, and other 
places of the Spanish Netherlands. 

Unfortunately the objects of the triple alliance were 
soon lost sight of. The king's extravagance led to the 
appointment of a commission of public accounts, which 
greatly offended him. But as means had to be devised 
to provide him with money, Buckingham began nego- 
tiations with the French king to obtain pecuniary as- 
sistance for Charles. This led to the conclusion of a 
secret treaty at Dover (May, 1670), in which it was 
stipulated that Charles should approve of the Catholic 
doctrines and rites, and n\ake a public confession of 



1660—1685.] CHARLES II. 179 

tliem, tliat lie slioiild unite witli France to destroy the 
Dntcli republic, and that Louis should pay him an annual 
pension of 120,000Z., and assist him with an army in case 
of an insurrection among his subjects. It was further 
agreed that of the conquests to be made in Holland 
Charles should receive Walcheren, Sluys, and Cadsand. 
War was therefore declared against Holland in March, 
1672. In order to obtain the money necessary for this 
war, Charles adopted the unprecedented and dishonest 
step of suspending for twelve months the payment of 
money advanced to the government, which at once put 
into his hands the sum of 1,300,000Z., but ruined many 
commercial houses and others who had invested their 
savings in public securities. The first encounter between 
the hostile fleets took place "in Southwold Bay, on the 
coast of Norfolk. Both sides fought most bravely, and 
the English suffered severely, though they claimed the 
victory. Meanwhile Louis had invaded Holland with 
an army of one hundred thousand men, and advanced to 
the neighbourhood of Amsterdam. But the Dutch, 
with their wonted determination, on the advice of 
William of Orange, who had been elected stadtholder, 
cut the dykes, and flooded the country. Louis was thus 
obliged to return, leaving some troops in the towns 
which he had taken. The war was henceforth carried 
on very languidly, both by land and by sea, until it 
was brought to a close by the treaty of Westminster in 
1674, when the Dutch promised to honour the British 
flag and to pay nearly 300,000Z. as an indemnity for 
the expenses of the war. On the continent Louis 
continued the war for four years longer. 

In the beginning of 1673, parliament, which had not 
met for nearly two years, again assembled. The year 
before, the king had issued a " Declaration of Indul-» 
gence," whereby the penal laws against nonconformists 
were suspended; parliament now obliged him to re- 
voke it, and both Catholics and dissenting Protestants 
had again to bow under the old laws, which remained 
in force until, in 1828, protestant nonconformists ob- 
tained the right to hold public offices. In consequence 
of this revocation of the indulgence two members of the 



180 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. X. 

cabal, tlie duke of York and lord Clifford, who were 
Catholics, resigned their offices. Sir Thomas Osborne, 
afterwards earl of Danby, now became prime minister. 

There was at that time, and there had been for many 
years, a great dread of the Catholics, especially as 
Charles, not having any legitimate issue, his successor 
would be his brother York. Danby, to allay such fears, 
brought about a marriage between William, prince of 
Orange, and Mary, daugjiter of James I. At this 
Louis XIV. was so angry that he withdrew his pension 
from Charles. The popular mind, however, was so 
much inclined to listen to stories about secret plots of 
Catholics, that any rumour, however absurd, was readily 
believed. A Protestant clergyman, Titus Oates, a man 
of infamous character, came forward with the fictitious 
story that a number of Catholics in England, France, 
and Spain had conspired to kill Charles and re-establish 
the old religion. By this and other stories he lashed 
the nation into a state of perfect frenzy. The love of 
notoriety and gain induced other men to follow his 
example. Oates succeeded so well with his lies .that in 
the end he even ventured to impeach the queen. In 
this attempt, however, he was thwarted by the king 
himself. During this period of excitement many inno- 
cent persons were arrested and sent to the scaffold 
because they were supposed to be connected with 
those plots. One of the results of these agitations was 
the "Papists' Disabling Act," by which no Catholic 
was allowed to sit in either house. 

Parliament, which had now been in existence for 
nearly seventeen years, and at the commencement had 
shown a most servile submission to the king's will and 
pleasure, at last became thoroughly opposed to the con- 
tinued course of misgovernment. When the commons 
proceeded to impeach Danby, Charles dissolved them in 
the beginning of 1679. The new parliament, which 
met soon after, turned out to be equally hostile to the 
court. The proceedings against Danby were continued, 
and in spite of the king's wish to pardon him, he was 
sent to the Tower. 

Danby's place in the king's confidence was filled by 



1660—1685.] CHAELES II. 18l 

Sir William Temple, from whose management mncli 
good was expected. One important measure was passed 
by Parliament, tlie Habeas Corpus Act, "for the better 
secnring the liberty of the subject, and for prevention 
of imprisonment beyond the seas." As several other 
bills distasteful to the king were spoken of, parliament 
was prorogued. The object of one of these bills "was to 
exclude his brother, the duke of York, from the succes- 
sion. Fearing that stormy times would come, the king 
wished to provide himself with a strong army, and in 
order to have a plausible pretext he drove the Scotch 
into a rebellion by the severe laws against conventicles. 
This led to acts of retaliation on the part of the 
Scotch. The hostility towards the Catholics likewise 
continued, and was fanned especially by Shaftesbury. 
Numerous petitions were sent up to the king to summon 
a parliament to get a bill passed excluding York from 
the succession. This created a reaction in the public 
feeling in favour of the court, and addresses were sent 
to the king expressing satisfaction with the govern- 
ment and abhorrence of the petitioners. Hence the 
two parties were called " petitioners " and " abhorrers," 
names which were soon after changed into whigs and 
tories. Parliament at length assembled in October, 
1680, but as the commons still insisted on York's ex- 
clusion, it was again dissolved. That the English 
people had good reason to fear York, was clear from the 
brutalities with which he treated the Scotch dissenting 
Protestants. Charles, perceiving that the tide was 
turning in his favour, abolished the charters granted 
to London and other towns, and substituted new ones 
calculated to insure the ascendancy of the court party. 
The whigs were, on the whole, opposed to violence ; 
but Shaftesbury, and others of extreme views, including 
the duke of Monmouth, Charles' illegitimate son by 
Lucy Walters, thought it possible by a revolutionary 
movement to secure the exclusion of the prince and 
establish constitutional government. Shaftesbury, how- 
ever, finding the moderate whigs unwilling to follow 
his lead, escaped to Holland, where he died in 1683. 
Other men then took up the scheme, and a plot was 



182 mSTOHY OF EKaLANB. CChap. X, 

formed to assassinate the king and York at a place 
called the Eye House. The plan was revealed, and 
lords Eussell, Essex, Algernon Sidney, and Hampden 
(a grandson of John Hampden), were arrested ; Mon- 
mouth, Grey, and others escaped. Eussell was declared 
guilty of high treason, and executed ; Sidney also was 
executed, though there was no evidence of his guilt ; and 
Essex was found dead in the Tower. Never was justice 
so much abused as during these last years of Charles* 
reign, during which he governed the country as an 
absolute despot, without the advice of parliament. 
York recovered his ascendancy at the court, and Danby 
and other political prisoners were released from the 
Tower. But the vicious career of the kina: was comins: 
to an end. Pie was seized with a fit of apoplexy, which 
terminated fatally. Before his death a Catholic priest 
"was secretly admitted into his chamber by the help of 
liis brother. Charles declared himself a Catholic, con- 
fessed his sins, and had extreme unction administered 
to him. He died February 6th, 1685, leaving no legiti- 
mate issue, but many children by mistresses, such as 
the Dukes of Monmouth, Grafton, St. Albans, and 
Eichmond. 

5. JAMES n., 1685-1688 

James II., son of Charles I., was about sixty-eight 
years old when he ascended the throne. In his earlier 
years he had served in the French and Spanish armies, 
and at the restoration was made lord high admiral. 
Immediately after his accession he married Mary d'Este, 
his first wife, Anne Hyde, a daughter of Clarendon, 
having died in 1671. During his short reign he dis- 
played all the bad qualities of his race, and an utter 
want of sympathy M^ith the people and their rights ; he 
even lacked the good humour and skill which had 
always secured to Charles II. a certain degree of 
popularity. 

Upon his accession he promised the assembled par- 
liament that his object would be to preserve the govern 
ment, both in church and state, as by law established. 



1685-1688.] JAMES II. 183 

In consequence of this declaration lie received a more 
hearty welcome from the people than might have been 
anticipated, as his character was pretty well known. 
But suspicions were soon raised hy his openly attending 
mass in state, and still more hy his levying taxes with- 
out parliament, and drawing to his court numbers of 
Catholics. Persons imprisoned for having refused com- 
pliance with the rules of the English church were 
liberated, but Protestant dissenters were not released, 
so that his indulgence benefited only those of his own 
persuasion. 

When, in May, 1685, parliament met, it showed itself 
devoted to the court, granted the king an ample revenue, 
and expressed its strong attachment to the established 
church. During the late reign numerous Protestant 
dissenters had taken refuge in Holland, and, indignant 
at seeing the English throne occupied by a Catholic, 
they formed a plan of overthrowing his government. 
The earl of Argyle headed a large number of Presby- 
terians, and Monmouth, who was also living in exile, 
was to join the undertaking and create a rebellion in 
England, while Argyle's scene of operation was to be in 
Scotland. Two expeditions were accordingly organized, 
and Argyle arrived in Scotland in May. Few persons 
of quality joined him, and the undertaking failed from 
want of agreement among the leaders, and of the hearty 
support of the people. When Argjde discovered that 
his position was hopeless, he fled, and fell into the 
hands of his enemies, who had him executed at Edin- 
burgh on the last day of June. 

About six days before the capture of Argyle, Mon- 
mouth landed at Lyme Eegis, in Dorsetshire, where he 
was received with enthusiasm, for he declared that he 
had come to defend the Protestant religion and the 
rights of the English people. His followers increased 
as he advanced towards Taunton, whence he proceeded 
to Bridgewater. The royal troops which were sent out 
against him, under the command of earl Eeversham, 
were encamped on the plain of Sedgemoor. Monmouth 
attacked them in the night, and his men, though ill 
armed, fought with the greatest bravery. His cavalry 



184 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. X 

was commanded by lord Grey, who seems to have «cted 
with much cowardice; and when Monmouth learned 
that the cavalry was routed, he lost hope and withdrew 
from the fight. In company with lord Grey he fled, 
hoping to reach the coast, but both were overtaken. 
Monmouth having been attainted immediately after 
landing in England, was carried to London, and be- 
headed on Tower Hill, on the 15th of July. 

The speedy crushing of these insurrections might 
have greatly strengthened James, but this result was 
frustrated by the atrocious cruelties perpetrated by 
Feversham and one colonel Kirke upon all those who 
had in any way been connected with the rebellion of 
Monmouth. Their cruelties were so revolting, and the 
conduct of the chief justice, Jeffreys, was so opposed to 
all law and decency, that the people almost justified 
the rebellion. Hundreds of persons were put to death 
in the counties through which Monmouth had passed, 
and nearly one thousand were sent into the colonies as 
slaves. In order to strike terror into the people, the 
heads and limbs of those executed were stuck on poles 
in the public places and streets, and even on church 
doors. That the king himself approved of these pro- 
ceedings is evident, from the fact that Jeffreys was 
promoted to the office of lord chancellor. 

James, elated by the success of his arms, thought it 
no longer necessary to conceal his real designs ; he re- 
solved to get rid of those parts of the constitution 
which were obstacles in his way towards absolute 
power. The Habeas Corpus Act prevented him im- 
prisoning persons arbitrarily, the Test Act kept out 
of the army Catholic officers, on whom he thought he 
could depend most, and the want of a standing army 
was felt as a necessity to curb his rebellious subjects. 
These things, therefore, he determined to alter, and 
when Halifax, the ablest statesman of the time, tried 
to prevent him from entering on so dangerous a course, 
he was dismissed. When parliament assembled in 
November, and likewise showed a strong opposition to 
the king's designs, it was at once prorogued, and after- 
wards dissolved. 



1685—1688.] JAMES II. 185 

In October of tlie same year, 1685, Louis XIV. had 
revoked the edict of Nantes, by which Henry IV. had 
granted religions freedom to the French Protestants. 
In consequence of this about one hundred thousand 
French Protestants emigrated to Germany, HoUand, 
and England. The arrival of these men strongly 
aroused the fears of the English people, who dreaded 
similar things from their own king. But James, in- 
stead of allaying these fears by adopting moderate 
counsels, continued to give his entire confidence to 
Catholic advisers ; he forbade clergjmien to preach 
against Catholicism, proclaimed liberty of conscience to 
all Catholics, both in England and Scotland, esta- 
blished an ecclesiastical commission, similar to the 
High Commission Court, which had been abolished 
many years before, and assembled an army on Houn- 
slow Heath, most of the officers of which were Catholics. 
In short, it was quite evident that James was bent 
upon re-establishing the old religion. 

The king even ventured to thrust Catholics into the 
two universities. In 1686 he appointed a Catholic 
dean of Christ Church, and in the following year he 
ordered a Benedictine monk to be admitted to the 
degree of master of arts; and as the vice-chancellor 
refused to violate the law, he was deprived by the 
ecclesiastical court of his offices and emoluments. At 
Oxford, which the king thought more pliable, he tried 
to introduce a Catholic of notoriously bad character as 
president of Magdalen College. The fellows refused 
to admit him, whereupon they were summoned before 
the ecclesiastical court, expelled from the university, 
and declared incapable of holding any church office. 

In April, 1688, another declaration was issued an- 
nouncing liberty of conscience, and the clergy were 
requested to read it publicly in their churches. But 
the principal ministers in London determined not to 
obey the order, and six of the bishops (Ken, Whit-e, 
Lloyd, Turner, Lake, and Trelawny), with archbishoj) 
Sancroft at their head, signed a petition praying the 
king to excuse the clergy. James resented this as an 
unjustifiable interference with the dispensing power to 



186 HISTORY Oi^ ENGLAND. [CiiAP. X, 

wliicli lie laid claim, and declared the petitioners rebels. 
On the day appointed for the reading of the declaration 
it was promulgated in only four of the London chnrches. 
In the meantime the petition of the bishops had be- 
come widely known, and James' anger was roused to 
such a degree that he ordered the seven bishoj)s to be 
imprisoned in the Tower for having published a se- 
ditious libel. Soon after they were brought before the 
Court of Queen's Bench. The excitement in London 
was intense, the court and all avenues to it were 
crowded with people anxiously waiting for the issue. 
After long deliberations the bishops were acquitted, 
and the verdict was received with shouts of applause. 
A fortnight before this trial a son was born to the king, 
and called James, but the people disbelieved that the 
child was really his, and that the affair was only a 
trick of the Catholics, to prevent a Protestant succeed- 
ing to the crown. 

The prince of Orange, who was married to Mary, 
daughter of James II., had for some time been watch- 
ing the affairs of England with much interest. The 
whig p€irty, knowing that both the prince and princess 
were opposed to Catholicism, as well as to James' system 
of government, had become more excited by the treat- 
ment of the bishops and the birth of a son, for it was 
clear that he would be educated in the Catholic re- 
ligion. The leading whigs accordingly resolved to 
promote a change in the government. They sent a 
formal invitation to the prince of Orange to come to 
England at the head of a strong force. Those who 
signed this invitation were the earls of Danby, Devon- 
shire, Shrewsbury, Lord Lumley, the bishop of London, 
admiral Eussell, and Llenry Sidney. Great prepara- 
tions were made in Holland with energy and secrecy, 
and James, who received warnings and offers of assist- 
ance from the French king, slighted the suggestion, 
and "William completed his arrangements without hin- 
drance. When all was ready he sent a proclamation 
to England, in which he enumerated all the misdeeds 
of the government, and pledged himself to secure legal 
toleration to the different religious sects, and to have 



1685—1688.] JAMES 11. 187 

all disputed questions settled by parliament. When 
James discovered his real danger he tried to conciliate 
the people by revoking his tyrannical measures and 
promising all manner of concessions. But the people 
could not be deceived by such a sudden change, and on 
the 5th of November, 1688, William landed at Torbay 
with an army of fifteen thousand men, and was joinecl 
soon after by the noblemen who had invited him. 
James gathered his forces at Salisbury, but his officers 
deserted one after another to W^illiam, so that he felt 
obliged to hasten back to London, and knew not what 
to do. Finding his situation hopeless, he first sent his 
queen and son to the Continent, and on December 
11th he left Whitehall in disguise, intending to go 
to France ; but he was seized and brought back to 
London. Meanwhile, William was advancing, and 
James was allowed to withdraw to Eochester, whence 
he fled to Ambleteuse. He made several attempts to 
recover his throne, but in vain, and afterwards resided 
at St. Germains, enjoying the hospitality of Louis, 
until his death, September 6th, 1701. In London per- 
fect order "prevailed until the arrival of William. 

There now followed a short period called the Inter- 
regnum, from December 11th, 1688, to the loth of 
February, 1689, the day on which the crown was 
offered and accepted by William and Mary. They 
entered London, December 18th, and the next day the 
peers and members of the parliament of Charles II., who 
at the time happened to be in London, met, with others, 
to deliberate as to what should be done. They called 
upon William to undertake the administration, and to 
summon a convention to meet on January 22nd for the 
purpose of regulating the affairs of the kingdom. After 
a few days the Commons resolved that James, having 
endeavoured to subvert the constitution, and having 
withdrawn himself out of his kingdom, had abdicated 
the government, and that thereby the throne had 
become vacant ; and, secondly, that it was inconsistent 
with the safety and welfare of the Protestant kingdom 
to be governed by a Catholic prince. The Lords agreed 
to the second resolution, but the first became the sub« 



188 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [CHAP. XI. 

ject of a lengthened discussion. The result, however, 
was that the prince and princess were declared king 
and queen of England, and that the executive was en- 
trusted to the prince alone. The succession was then 
regulated by the Act of " Settlement." And to prevent 
any further disputes another act was passed, called the 
*' Declaration of Eights," which set forth the ancient 
rights of the people, and was read out to William on 
February 13th. He promised to preserve the Pro- 
testant religion, the laws of the land, and the liberties 
and property of the people. 



CHAPTER XL 

THE REVOLUTION DYNASTY, 

William aad Mary , 1689-1694 I Aane ..... 1702 X7H 
William III, alone . 1694-1702 | 

1. WIILIAM AND MARY, 1689-1694. 

William, from first to last, had to contend with 
great difficulties, and even with ingratitude from those 
who had invited him to England. His manners, it is 
true, had nothing winning, and, generally, his words 
were few, but they could always be relied upon, and 
it cannot be denied that he freed England from the 
tyranny of the Stuarts, and secured civil and religious 
liberty, at least to a great extent. 

The irregular meeting, or convention, which had 
given the crown to William, constituted itself as a 
regular parliament, and at once proceeded to settle the 
most urgent questions. An act was passed requiring 
all members of parliament and all civil and military 
officers to take the oath of allegiance and supremacy. 
About four hundred clergymen refused, and, in conse- 
quence, lost their benefices; they were called non- 
Jurors, and caused much trouble to the government. 
The Nonconformists were benefited by an Act of 
" Toleration," which freed them from the penalties to 
which they had been liable, provided they took the 



1689—1694.] WILLIAM AND MABY. 189 

oath of allegiance and signed a declaration against 
Catholicism. This act of toleration, however, did not 
apply to either Catholics or Unitarians. 

The next subject was the settlement of the revenue* 
and it was arranged that the sum of 1,200,000Z. should 
be voted yearly in time of peace, and that 600,000Z. 
should be paid to the Dutch for their expenses incurred 
in William's expedition. The mutiny of a Scotch 
regiment at Ipswich, which had received orders to go 
to Holland, but started for Scotland, led to the passing 
of the " Mutiny Act," |. whereby a standing army was 
created and provision made that military offences should 
be tried by a court martial. 

In Scotland the revolution had taken the same course 
as in England. James II. had been declared deposed, 
and William and Mary had been asked to fill the 
vacant throne. Some attempt was indeed made by 
viscount Dundee to foment a rebellion, especially among 
the Highlanders, but they were met by the royal army 
at the pass of Killiekrankie, where in a fierce and un- 
expected attack the rebels gained the victory ; but as 
Dundee was mortally wounded they lost heart, and 
retreated and dispersed among the mountains. By the 
end of the year 1689 all Scotland, with the exception of 
some highland districts, submitted to the new order of 
things. 

In Ireland the case was different, for the majority of 
the people being Catholics continued their allegiance 
to James II., who, being supplied with men and arms 
by Louis XIV., attempted to recover his kingdom. 
He landed at Kinsale in March, and Tyrconnel, the 
governor of Ireland, placed about ten thousand men at 
his disposal. James summoned a packed parliament at 
Dublin, and, utterly incapable of profiting by his past 
experience, caused this parliament to repeal the Act of 
Settlement, confiscated the estates of all absentees 
above the age of seventeen, and nearly all the tithes 
were taken from the Protestant clergy and given to 
Catholics. Some of the towns, as Londonderry and 
Enniskillen, which refused to acknowledge James as 
their king were besieged, but they defended themselves 



190 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. XI, 

witli extraordinary valour and perseverance. After a 
siege of nearly four months Londonderry was relieved, 
and the Enniskilleners defeated a strong body of troops 
who were sent to seize the town. The number of Irish 
killed at that time amounted to about two thousand, 
and four hundred were taken prisoners. In the month 
of August Schomberg, one of William's generals, landed 
with ten thousand men in Ireland ; he took several of 
the northern towns, and entrenched himself near Dun- 
dalk, where a large number of his men perished from 
want and disease. In June, 1690, William himself, 
leaving the government in the hands of the queen, 
crossed over into Ireland with an army of thirty thou- 
sand men, and at once marched against James. The 
Irish army retreated before him, and took up a strong 
position on the banks of the Boyne. On the 1st of 
July, William, supported by able officers, utterly de- 
feated his rival. When James found that the battle 
was lost, he fled to Dublin, and thence to Waterford, 
where he embarked for France. 

After this victory of the Boyne, William went to 
Dublin, and without much difficulty secured the sub- 
mission of the south of Ireland ; he then proceeded to 
Limerick, where the remaining Irish army was assem- 
bled, but not meeting with the expected success, he 
returned to England, where he was received with 
demonstrations of enthusiastic joy. The war in Ire- 
land, however, was continued, and brought to a close 
in 1691 by the treaty of Limerick, in which it was 
agreed that the Irish Catholics should enjoy the same 
rights and liberties in religious matters as they had 
enjoyed in the reign of Charles II., and an amnesty 
was promised to all who testified their submission to 
William by taking the oath of allegiance. About 
fourteen thousand Irish soldiers, refusing to take the 
oath, entered the service of the king of France, where 
they were known by the name of the " Irish Brigade." 

The strong feeling aroused against France in conse- 
quence of the support given to James in Ireland, led 
the parliament, which reassembled in October, 1689, 
to join the general coalition against Louis, and 



1689—1694-.] -WILLIAM AND MARY. 191 

4,000,000Z. were voted for the army and navy. Wil- 
liam himself went over to Holland in the following 
year to arrange the plans of the allies against France. 
Before his return the bishops who refused to take the 
oath of allegiance were turned out of their sees, and 
their places were filled with men of moderate prin- 
ciples. 

The war against France was commenced in 1690, 
and lasted till 1697, being carried on both by land and 
by sea. In the first two years the allies were unsuc- 
cessful, and in the third Louis collected a large fleet, 
to make a descent upon England, having concerted 
with the Jacobites (the name given to the adherents 
of James, Latin, Jacobus) a plan of calling forth a 
rising in England at the same time. But the con- 
spiracy was discovered, and came to nothing. The 
French fleet under Trouville met the united English 
and Dutch fleets off La Hogue, and in the ensuing 
battle the French lost twenty-five ships, while the 
English, under the command of Eussell, lost none. 
On land the allies were less successful. In 1694 the 
English bombarded the coast towns Havre and Dieppe, 
but their attempt to destroy Brest failed, and the 
failure was ascribed to the treachery of Marlborough. 
In the course of the following year St. Malo and Dun- 
kirk were bombarded by the English, and Brussels 
by Louis ; but William performed one of his most 
brilliant feats in the recovery of Namur. During 
these bombardments and sieges many thousands of men 
were killed, and houses and churches were destroyed. 
At length, both parties being exhaiisted, the peace of 
Ryswick, in September, 1697, pUt an end to hostilities, 
and it was agreed that the fortresses taken by Louis 
in Flanders and about the Pyrenees should be restored 
to Spain, that a number of towns in the east of France 
should be given back to the emperor, that Louis should 
cease to disturb the English king in his possessions, 
and that neither sovereign should countenance con- 
spiracies against the other. 

The early part of the year 1692 had been marked 
by an act of atrocity in Scotland for which William 

• K ■ 



192 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. XI. 

must to some extent be held responsible. The High- 
landers who had refused to make their submission to 
the English king were in the end gained over by 
bribes and threats, except Mclan, the head of the 
McDonalds of Glencoe, who, being prevented by un- 
foreseen circumstances, was a few days behind the 
time allowed for taking the oath. Breadalbane and 
Dalrymple, the secretary of state for Scotland, made 
the lateness of Mclan the pretext for obtaining from 
William an order to destroy the whole clan. A number 
of soldiers were sent into the valley, and pretending to 
be friends to the people, were kindly treated by them, 
when suddenly, on the 13th of February, the soldiery 
savagely fell upon the unsuspecting peo23le and mas- 
sacred forty persons, including their chief. Those 
who tried to escape perished from hunger and cold. 
"When the circumstances became known William in- 
flicted on Dalrymple no other punishment than dis- 
missal. This cruel massacre is a stain on the king's 
character, for with a little more caution he might have 
prevented it. 

Although William was a great benefactor to England, 
he never was thoroughly popular, partly on account of 
the coldness of his manners, and partly on account of 
his being a foreigner. Even some of his first sup- 
porters afterwards carried on a treasonable correspond- 
ence with James, and parliament also showed little 
disposition to favour him, for the grants to him were 
made annually, and after the restoration of peace his 
foreign auxiliaries were ordered to be disbanded. AVil- 
liam perhaps committed the mistake of showing some 
partiality to his Dutfeh followers, such as Bentinck, 
who was made earl of Portland, Schomberg, Zuyles- 
tein, and Auverquerque. Until the year 1693 he had 
given no special preference to either party in the state, 
but on the advice of Sunderland, his confidential coun- 
sellor, he chose his ministers from among the whigs. 
In September, 1693, the queen became seriously ill 
with small-pox, and died on the 28th, leaving William 
sole king of England. 



1694—1702.] WILLIAM IIL 193 

2. WILIIAM III., 1694-1702. 

William was greatly affected hj the death of Maiy, 
and suffered much from depression ; but he roused him- 
self, and it was in the very year after that he recovered 
:N'amur from the French. This great success made him 
for the moment very jDopular, and in the new parliament 
which was then elected the whig party appeared in con- 
siderable force. One of the most important measures 
passed by it was an act regulating trials for high treason 
(1696), which clearly defined what treason consists in, 
gave the -accused better opportunities of defending 
themselves, and required at least two witnesses. 
_ Several plots had already been formed against Wil- 
liam's life, partly, it is said, instigated by James, or 
his agents. In February, 1696, the so-called " assassi- 
nation plot " was discovered, the object of which was 
to murder William and invade the kingdom. Several 
persons who were implicated in it were condemned to 
death. But the conspiracy produced one good result, 
as it led to the formation of a national association for 
the protection of the king's life. But parliament, fan- 
cying that peace was secured by^the treaty of Ptyswick, 
reduced the army to ten thousand, contrary to the 
king's express wish, and further hurt his feelings, in 
1699, by obliging all not being native-born English- 
men, to quit the army, although those men had been 
of most signal service during the French war. 

King Charles II. of Spain had no children, and there 
was danger of the whole of the Spanish dominions 
falling into the hands of the French. In order to 
avoid this, a secret treaty was negotiated by William 
m 1698, by which the dominions were to be divided 
among three claimants—the French dauphin, the arch- 
duke of Austria, and the elector of Bavaria. But as 
the last of these three died soon after, a new division 
became necessary, but by various intrigues Louis XIV 
succeeded in securing all Spain for his grandson Philip. 
Ihis again led to the formation of a great alliance in 
IvOl, and to the war of the Spanish succession, which 
loroke out m the reign of queen Anne. 



194 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. XI. 

As William and Mary had no children, the death of 
the duke of Gloucester, the only surviving son of 
Anne, daughter of James II., in July, 1700, rendered 
a new settlement of the succession necessary, in order 
to secure it to a Protestant ; and an act was accordingly 
passed in 1701 limiting the inheritance of the crown 
to the princess Sophia, the electress of Hanover, and 
her heirs. William's health had gradually been fail- 
in «- : a fall from his horse, in which he broke his collar - 
bone, soon showed alarming symptoms, and on February 
21st, 1702, he died at Kensington, in the fifty-second 
year of his age. 

S. ANNE, 1702-1714. 

Anne, the second daughter of James II. and Anne 
Hyde, married, in 1683, prince George of Denmark, 
and deserting the cause of her father, joined the revo- 
lutionary party. Her children died early, and in 1700 
her only surviving son, William duke of Gloucester, 
was likewise carried off at the early age of eleven. 
Her husband who scarcely exercised any influence 
upon the affairs of England, died in 1708. Anne 
herself was a person of a kind and amiable, but weak, 
character, and allowed herself to be guided by her 
female friends and favourites, of whom the political 
parties were not slow to avail themselves for their 
own purposes. 

Immediately after Anne's accession, the Scotch showed 
signs of discontent with the existing arrangements be- 
tween their country and England. The question about 
a union of the two countries had been considered be- 
fore, and Anne herself expressed a wish that it should 
be realized. But there was considerable ojoposition in 
the Scottish parliament, which, in 1703, passed what 
was called the " Act of Security," providing that, after 
the demise of the queen, the same person should be 
incapable of holding the crowns of both kingdoms, 
unless the Scottish people were allowed to share with 
the English the full benefits of trade and navigation. 
This act called forth great exasperation in England, 



1702— 17U.] ANNE. 195 

and in tlie following year the English parliament by a 
similar act deprived Scotchmen of the rights and privi- 
leges of Englishmen, and greatly restricted the com- 
mercial intercourse between the two countries. In 
fact, affairs assumed so threatening an aspect that the 
English parliament thought it expedient to accept the 
Scottish Act of Security. The idea of a union, how- 
ever, was steadily gaining ground, and the opinion of 
the wisest men on both sides regarded it as a great 
benefit to both nations. Accordingly, in 1705, the 
Scotch parliament appointed commissioners to meet 
with representatives of the English government and 
discuss the terms on which the union might be effected. 
When the proposed terms became known in Scotland, 
nearly all parties were dissatisfied, but with the help 
of bribes and liberal promises the opposition was 
silenced, and in 1707 the union was decreed by both 
parties, and was to date from the 1st of May. The 
principal terms were, that the two countries should 
form one kingdom under the name of Great Britain ; 
that the succession should take place in accordance 
with the settlement made in the reign of William III. ; 
that there should be free communication of trade and 
navigation; that all rights, privileges,* customs, and 
duties should be the same, unless special arrangements 
were made ; that Scotland should retain her own laws 
and customs; that she should be represented in the 
English parliament by sixteen elective peers and forty- 
five commoners, representing counties and boroughs; 
and that the Presbyterian church of Scotland should 
retain its own form of worship, government, and dis- 
cipline. The peaceful union thus effected has been of 
incalculable benefit to both countries. 

Although Anne sided with the whig party against 
her own father, yet she, in her heart, hated them, 
believing them to be republicans and enemies to the 
church of England, to which she was devotedly at- 
tached. As it could not remain a secret that her 
sympathies , were with the tories, that party took 
courage, and clergymen began to preach violent ser- 
mons against toleration and dissenters, whereby the 



196 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. Xt 

people were so mncli incited against tliem that some of 
the houses of dissenters were plundered, and their 
meeting-houses destroyed by the mob. Numerous pe- 
titions were sent to the queen to support the more 
intolerant party of the church, and rid herself of her 
whig advisers ; and as these petitions coincided with 
her own feelings, she dismissed all the whigs with the 
exception of Marlborough. 

This man, as colonel Churchill, had married Sarah 
Jennings, the queen's most intimate friend from early 
youth. Alter the revolution, William had rewarded 
Marlborough's military talents in the most generous 
and liberal manner. On her accession the queen 
was still completely under the influence of lady Marl- 
borough, and made her husband captain-general of all 
her forces, in which capacity he carried on the war on 
the continent, in conjunction with the allies, against 
France and Spain. 

In the new parliament, which met in 1710, the tories 
had the majority, and showed their aversion to the 
whig party by refusing to pass a vote of thanks for 
the great military services of the captain -general, and 
by charging him with peculation. The queen was 
then prevailed upon to deprive Marlborough of all 
his offices, and the whig influence at the court was at 
an end. The place of lady Marlborough was filled by 
a Mrs. Masham, of whose influence the tories now 
availed themselves for their own ends. The war, it 
was said, had been kept Up by the whigs chiefly to 
gratify Marlborough, and the tories, now opposing its 
continuance, commenced negotiations for peace. 

It is now time to turn our attention to the war 
which is called the war of the Spanish succession, and 
had been carried on by land and by sea ever since the 
accession of Anne. After the death of Charles II. of 
Spain, in 1700, the Spanish monarchy, through in- 
trigues, had fallen to Philip of Anjou, grandson of 
Louis XIV. This led to the formation of the great 
alliance between England, Austria, and Holland, which 
was afterwards joined by the German emperor, Portu- 
gal, and Savoy, The object was to maintain the claims 



1702—1714.] 



ANNE. 



197 



of the archduke of Austria. The war was opened in 
the Netherlands in 1702 by Marlborough, who during 
the first years was most successful, capturing town 
after town, and penetrating into the very lieart of 
Germany, where, in 1704, he gained the brilliant vic- 
tory of Blenheim, a village on the banks of the Danube. 
We cannot here enter into a detailed account of this 
complicated and wide-spread war ; suffice it to say that 
Marlborough, with few interruptions, continued his 
victorious career until 1711, when he was deprived of 
his offices through the intrigues of the tories. His 




GTBT^ALTAR. 



place at the head of the armies was then given to 
Ormond, who refused to act on the offensive, and as 
he separated his |;roops from those of the allies, the 
French gained some advantages ; but as nearly all 
parties were exhausted, conferences about peace were 
commenced as early as the year 1712. 

While the war was raging on the continent of 
Europe, the English fleet under admiral Eooke was 
operating against the coasts of Spain, where, in the 
first year, it gained considerable advantages. In 1704, 
Kooke took Gibraltar, and inflicted so severe a blow 
on the French fleet off Malaga that it did not venture 



198 Hisi:oRY OF England. [Chap, xf. 

iipon anotlier battle during the war. In 1708 admiral 
Leake took the island of Sardinia, and in the West 
Indies large and valuable prizes were gained ; but an 
expedition against the French in Canada, in 1711, 
commanded by Hill, a brother of Mrs. Masham, proved 
a complete failure. It ought to be mentioned that in 
1708 Louis XIV., in order to create a diversion, gave 
to the pretender (son of James II., who called himself 
James III.) a fleet, with an armed force, to go to Scot- 
land, but admiral Byng prevented him from landing 
in the Forth. Louis, ever since 1709, had attempted 
in vain to come to an arrangement with his. enemies, 
but when the tories had come into power they showed 
a strong desire to bring the war to a close, and at 
Utrecht a treaty of peace was concluded in 1713. In 
it the crown of Spain and its colonies was left to 
Philip, on the understanding that the crowns of France 
and Spain should never be united ; Gibraltar and Mi- 
norca were ceded to England, which also received Nova 
Scotia and St. Kitts. Louis further bound himself to 
support the Protestant succession in England, and to 
order the pretender to quit France. The substantial 
advantages thus gained by England were considerable, 
though perhaps not what might have been expected 
from the many and great victories gained by Marl- 
borough. 

The remaining short period of Anne's life is filled 
with the intrigues of the Jacobites to secure the suc- 
cession of the pretender, and Anne herself is said to 
have been favourable to it. The electress Sophia died 
in June, 1714, and by the act of settlement her son 
George Louis was the heir to the English throne. Soon 
after this Anne was seized by an apeplectic fit, and on 
the 1st of August, 1714, she expired at Kensington, in 
her fiftieth year. Her reign had been undisturbed by 
rebellion, and only one execution for high treason had 
taken place. Her strong attachment to the church 
was shown in many ways, and her provision for poor 
clergymen still exists under the name of " Queen Anne's 
Bounty." 



1714—1727.] 



GEOBGE 



199 



CHAPTER XII. 

THE HOUSE 01" BRUNSWICK OR HANOVER. 



George 1. . . 


. . 1714-1727 


George IV. . 


. 1820-1830 


George II.. 


. . 1727-1760 


William IV. . 


. 1830-1837 


George III. . 


. . 1760-1820 


Victoria . 


. 1837 



1. GEORGE I., 1714-1727. 

Immediately upon tlie death of Anne, in accord- 
ance with the Act of Settlement, George Louis was 
proclaimed king as George I., for he was the son 
of Ernest Augustus, elector of Hanover and duke of 
Brunswick - Liineburg, and Sophia grand-daughter of 
James I. When he arrived from the continent in his 
new kingdom he was heartily welcomed, his accession 
being regarded as a guarantee for the maintenance of 
the Protestant religion. He was then fifty-fonr jesus 
old, and was married to Sophia Dorothea of Zelle, by 
whom he had two children, George (who succeeded 
him as George 11.) and Sophia (afterwards queen of 
Prussia, and mother of Frederick the Great). His 
wife, being suspected of an intrigue with count Kon- 
igsmark, had been imprisoned in the castle of Alden, 
where she remained for thirty -two j^ears, and died a 
few months before her husband. King George w^as 
totally ignorant of the English language, and seems 
to have had an aversion to English manners and cus- 
toms ; his own manners were coarse and awkward, 
and he always preferred living in his continental do- 
minions. His mind was uncultivated, his tastes low, 
and his society consisted chiefly of persons who pandered 
to them. Although he punished his wife severely on 
mere suspicion, he himself did not scruple openly to 
live with and lavish his favours upon mistresses. It 
must at the same time be stated that he was not with- 
out valour, as he had shown in the war of the Spanish 
succession, and that he was of frugal habits and anxious 
to preserve peace. 

On Anne's death eighteen lords justices, mostly 
whigs, were appointed to conduct the regency until 



200 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. XII. 

the arrival of the new king, on the 18th of September. 
He at once identified himself with the whig party, 
and his principal ministers were lord Townshend, 
brother-in-law of Robert Walpole, and general Stan- 
hope. The Jacobite party, which was strong among 
the tories and the clergy, had been taken by sur- 
prise by the sudden death of Anne; and steps were 
taken immediately by the new government to punish 
her late ministers for having intrigued with the pre- 
tender and with France. Oxford, Bolingbroke, and 
Ormond were impeached for high treason, and Oxford 
was arrested, while the other two escaped by flight. 
These proceedings created alarm among the Jacobites. 
The exiled nobles hoped to obtain assistance and sup- 
port from Louis XIV., but his death, on Sept. 1st, de- 
prived them of this hope. However, they nevertheless 
resolved to attempt a rising in Scotland and the north 
of England against the Hanoverian dynasty. The 
pretender was then living in France under the name 
of Chevalier de St. George. The first to raise the 
standard of revolt in the north of Scotland was the 
earl of Mar, who was soon joined by an army of ten 
thousand men, with which he made himself master of 
nearly the whole of Scotland north of the Forth. But 
he was defeated Nov. 13th, 1715, by an inferior force 
under the duke of Argyle at Sheriffmuir. 

In the north of England, Mr. Foster, the earl of 
Derwentwater, and other nobles advanced with a force 
as far south as Preston, but were compelled to surrender 
to general Carpenter on the same day, November loth, 
on which Mar was defeated in Scotland, About a 
month later the pretender himself landed at Peter- 
head, but finding that Mar had failed, and being him- 
self unable to inspire his followers with confidence, he 
and the earl embarked for France, leaving the army to 
take care of itself. Lords Derwentwater, Kenmure, 
and about twenty-six other leaders of the rebellion 
were executed. 

This rebellion gave rise to an important change in 
the constitution. In 1694 an act had been passed that 
a new parliament should be elected every three years. 



1714—1727.] (GEORGE I. 20l 

but, as it was now feared, lest the Jacobites sliould be 
brought in in great numbers, an act was passed de- 
claring that a new parliament sliould be elected every 
seven years (septennial parliaments), which is still the 
law. The Jacobites, however, did not yet give up the 
hope of ultimate success, and remained, in fact, trouble- 
some throughout the reign of George I. In 1722 they 
formed a plan of seizing the Tower, the Bank, and 
other public buildings, and proclaiming the pretender 
simultaneously in different parts of the country ; but 
the scheme failed, and Atterbury, whom Anne had 
made bishop of Eochester, was deprived of his see and 
banished for having taken part in the plot. 

George I. always looked upon his continental pos- 
sessions as of more importance to him than England, 
and, in order to increase them, he purchased the secu- 
larised bishoprics of Bremen and Werden, which Den- 
mark had taken from Sweden, for 150,000Z. Charles 
XII. of Sweden then entered into intrigues with Philip 
Y. of Spain to promote the restoration of the Stuarts. 
But Stanhope, who had in the meantime become prime 
minister, formed what is called the "quadruple alli- 
ance," with Austria, France, and Holland, for the 
avowed purpose of preserving the peace of Europe. 
The Spaniards had already seized upon Sardinia, and, 
being bent upon recovering what they had lost by the 
peace of Utrecht, they sent out a fleet to conquer 
Sicily ; but admiral Byng defeated them off Cape 
Passaro in 1718. In revenge for this, the pretender 
was treated at Madrid as a legitimate king, and a fleet 
was got ready to escort him to England. But the 
little armada was dispersed by a storm, and only two 
ships reached Scotland, which of course could effect 
nothing. As Spain was everywhere unsuccessful, 
Philip at last gave in, and in 1720 joined the quad- 
ruj)le alliance. 

At home the administration was carried on by 
Stanhope in a liberal spirit. The prince of Wales 
had been excluded from the court ever since 1717, 
but Stanhope, in 1720, brought about a reconciliation 
between the king and his son, which, however, never 



202 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [CiUP. Xll. 

became cordial. In the same year Robert Walpole 
also entered the ministry, and assumed the chief direc- 
tion of affairs, in which position he maintained himself 
for twenty years. He took prompt measures to punish 
the offenders in the South Sea Company, by which 
thousands of people had been ruined. The govern- 
ment was charged with having abetted the swindle, 
but Stanhope defended himself with such vehemence 
that he was seized with apoplexy, and died the next 
day, 1721. 

While the government was thus threatened in par- 
liament, a general war seemed to be on the point of 
breaking out, for a confederacy was formed at. Vienna 
between Spain and the German empire to compel 
England to give up Gibraltar and Minorca. In order 
to counteract this movement, England concluded, in 
1725, at Hanover, a defensive alliance with France and 
Prussia, which was afterwards joined by Sweden and 
Holland. Spain spent a large amount of money upon 
a fruitless attempt to recover Gibraltar. However, a 
reconciliation was brought about by the French go- 
vernment in 1727. But Spain refused to join it, and 
the state of hostility between England and Spain con- 
tinued, until, in 1729, a peace was concluded, in which 
no mention was made of Gibraltar. 

In June, 1727, George I. was going on one of his 
usual visits to Hanover, when on the road he was 
seized with a fit of apoplexy, and died in his carriage, 
before he reached the palace of his brother, the bishop 
of Osnabrlick; this took place June 11th, 1727, 

2. GEOEGE n., 1727-1760. 

George II., the son of George I., was born at 
Hanover, and thirty years old when he arrived in 
this country with his father, so that at his accession 
he was in his forty-fourth year. He spoke English 
fluently, but at heart was as much a German as his 
father. Like him, also, he was always most anxious to 
maintain the hereditary possessions of his family in 
Germany. In his habits he was quite regular, and 



1727—1760.] GEOEGE II. 203 

always remained attached to tliose wlio had once 
gained his esteem. His queen, Caroline of Anspach, 
was handsome and well educated, and during her 
husband's visits to Hanover she managed the aifairs of 
the kingdom. George II. had five daughters and two 
sons, Frederick, prince of Wales, and William Augustus, 
duke of Cumberland, both of whom died before their 
father. 

Sir Eobert Walpole was retained by the new king 
at the head of the government, and maintained his 
post until 1742, notwithstanding a powerful and ever- 
increasing opposition. His policy was one of peace, 
and, on tlie whole, very beneficial to the country. The 
leader of the opposition was the great AVilliam Pitt. 
In 1733 Walpole carried several financial measures, 
but had to give up a most important excise bill, by 
which he intended to stop enormous frauds committed 
upon the revenue. The year 1736 is marked by the 
Porteous riots at Edinburgh, caused by the fact that 
Captain Porteous had fired upon the people while 
trying to rescue a criminal. Porteous was tried for 
murder and condemned to death, but was reprieved, 
whereupon the mob broke into the prison, dragged 
forth the unfortunate man, and hanged him. Many 
other excesses were committed by the rioters, in conse- 
quence of which the Lord Provost was deposed and 
the city fined. 

For a long time the English had carried on a very 
lucrative contraband trade with the Spanish colonies. 
Spain, which thus lost a very considerable portion of 
its revenue, endeavoured to prevent this systematic 
smuggling by searching English vessels, during which 
process English crews were sometimes rather roughly 
treated. The parliamentary opposition, regarding 
such things as insults to the English name, forced 
Walpole, in 1739, to declare war against Spain. 
Operations were commenced against the Spanish 
colonies, but as they were nearly everywhere unsuc- 
cessful, the government was blamed, and the new 
parliament, which assembled in 1741, was so hostile to 
"Walpole that he felt obliged to resign ; but the king, 



204 HISTORY OF ENGLAND, [Chap. XII. 

wlio reluctantly accepted liis resignation, created laim 
earl of Orford. Walpole, however, did not long enjoy 
this honour, as he died three years later, 1745. He 
was succeeded by Carteret, afterwards Earl Granville, 
a very able, but somewhat inconsistent statesman. 

About the time of the fall of Walpole, events occurred 
on the continent which involved England in a war 
about the Austrian succession. According to an 
arrangement called the " Pragmatic Sanction," Maria 
Theresa, in 1740, succeeded Charles YI. of Austria. 
But the elector of Bavaria, who claimed the succession 
for himself, was supported by France. As George II. 
had promised to uphold the " Pragmatic Sanction," 
parliament voted a large subsidy for Maria Theresa, 
and five millions to carry on the war. In 1742 the 
earl of Stair entered Germany with an army of forty 
thousand men, partly English and partly German 
allies. In the following year George himself joined 
the army, just in time to save Stair, who, by unskilful 
management, had allowed himself to be shut up in a 
valley near Dettingen, on the Main, by the French, 
under Noailles. A battle was fought there in 1743, in 
which the French were defeated with the loss of six 
thousand men. This battle delivered Germany from 
the French, but led to a declaration of war by France 
against England, early in 1744. The first campaign 
was opened the following year in Flanders, under the 
command of the duke of Cumberland, and as the 
English were deserted by their allies, the great battle 
of Fontenoy was won by the French, who thereby 
became masters of Flanders. 

This seemed to be a favourable moment for the 
younger pretender, Charles Edward, to venture upon 
an attempt to gain the crown of England. James, the 
old pretender, had given up all hope, but his son, who 
had received promises of support from France, made 
preparations to throw a considerable army upon the 
coast of Kent. The French fleet had actually anchored 
off Dungeness, when the greater part of it was wrecked 
during a storm. After this disaster the French govern- 
ment abandoned the undertaking, but the pretender 



1727—1760.] GEOBGE 11. 205 

started with two sliips, one of wliicli was lost during 
the voyage, and landed with seven men on the coast 
near Inverness. He there gained over some high- 
landers, and with about sixteen hundred followers ho 
. marched southward and defeated a body of the king's 
troops at Prestonpans, near Edinburgh, 1745. This 
success made him master of nearly all Scotland, and 
largely increased the number of his followers. He 
was, however, determined to conquer England as well, 
and marched towards Carlisle, which surrendered to 
him. He then advanced as far as Derby. But the 
English government had not been idle, and three 
armies gathering around him, he found it impossible 
to reach London, where many friends were awaiting 
him. His own followers urged him to return to the 
north, and near Penrith he gallantly checked the army 
of Cumberland who was pursuing him. Thence he 
proceeded to Glasgow, Stirling, and Inverness. His 
army had, in the meantime, been much diminished, 
and being attacked by Cumberland on CuUoden Moor, 
his men were utterly routed. After this battle the 
pretender, despairing of success, dismissed his followers, 
became a fugitive, and after many romantic adventures 
escaped to the continent. Cumberland treated the 
vanquished followers of the pretender with merciless 
cruelty, whence he was nicknamed " The Butcher ;" 
more than eighty of them were executed, and among 
them Lords Kilmarnock, Balmerino, and Lovat, and 
many were transported. 

After this no more serious attempt was made by the 
Stuart family. James, the old pretender, died in 
1765, and his son, Charles Edward, who was notorious 
for his dissolute life on the continent, died at Eome in 
1788 ; his brother, Henry, the only survivor of the 
family, lived at Kome as Cardinal York until his death 
in 1807. 

The war with France was continued in the meantime 
both by land and by sea, until, in 1748, the peace of 
Aix-la-Chapelle was concluded; in it the "Pragmatic 
Sanction" was maintained, and France and England 
were ordered each to restore the con(juests they had 



203 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. XIL 

made during tlie war. This peace lasted, indeed, for 
seven years, but there were several causes which kept 
Tip an ill-feeling between the two countries, and it was 
especially in their colonies in India and America that 
disputes about the boundaries and commercial interests 
were of constant occurrence. 

When at length it became evident that a fresh war 
could not be avoided, George II,, fearing for his conti- 
nental possessions, concluded alliances with Eussia, 
Hesse-Cassel, and Prussia, while France secured the 
alliance of Austria. The duke of Newcastle, who was 
then prime minister, annoyed the French in many ways, 
while he seems to have been unaware of their plans of 
operation. When, therefore, the French were trying 
to conquer Minorca, Admiral Byng was sent with an 
insufficient force of ten ill-equipped and ill-manned 
ships. In the ensuing action, Minorca was lost and 
Byng withdrew to Gibraltar. This failure created 
great indignation in England, and all the blame was 
thrown upon the admiral, who was tried by court- 
martial and shot in Portsmouth Harbour on the ground 
of his not having done his duty. Tlie ministry of 
Newcastle was broken up in 1757, and William Pitt 
undertook the administration of affairs in conjunction 
with Henry Fox (afterwards Lord Holland), and the 
duke of Newcastle. The period during which Pitt 
guided the helm of the state is perhaps the most 
brilliant in English history. 

In 1756 the Seven Years' War broke out on the 
continent between Frederick the Great and Maria 
Theresa, in which George II. supported the Prussian 
king with an army and a subsidy of 670,000Z. In the 
first campaign the duke of Cumberland was driven out 
of Hanover by the French, in consequence of which he 
incurred the displeasure of his father, and had to 
withdraw from the court. Pitt was at the time 
planning war on a gigantic scale, which was to be 
carried on simultaneously in nearly all parts of the 
world against France. The English arms were success- 
ful at Brest, Havre, Dunkirk, and at Quiberon, where, 
in 1759, the French would have been completely 



1727—1760.] GEORGE II. 207 

annihilated, had it not been for the misconduct of 
'Lord George Sackville, which enabled them to escape. 

In Africa, the island of Goree, at the month of the 
Senegal, was taken from the French in 1758, and in 
America, General Wolfe with a small body of troops 
attacked Quebec, Sept. 13th, 1759, and although he was 




DEATH OP WOLFE, 



mortally wounded, his men, encouraged by his heroic 
conduct, forced Quebec to capitulate. The conquest of 
Canada was completed in 1760. 

The French settlements in India, on the coast of 
Coromandel, were governed by Dupleix, who tried to 
win over the native princes and with their assistance 
to humble the English. But he found an able and 
worthy opponent in Eobert Clive. In 1756 Calcutta 
was attacked by Dowlah, the rajah of Bengal, and 
when it became clear that the place would be compelled 
to surrender, all the Europeans with the governor 
took to flight, leaving behind about two hundred men 
to shift for themselves. When the city was taken, the 
conquerors threw one hundred and forty-six English- 
men into what is called th© Blaok Holej a military 





208 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Char XII, 

prison, eighteen feet square, with only a small barred 
opening to admit air. This happened at the hottest 
season of the year, and when the dungeon was opened 
the next morning, only twenty-three men were found 
alive. Calcutta was sacked, and Englishmen were 
forbidden ever again to settle in the place. 

"When the tidings of this fiendish proceeding reached 
Clive, who was then governor of Fort St. David, an 
expedition was got ready at Madras, and at the head of 
nine hundred Europeans and one thousand five hundred 
native troops (Sepoys) he retook Calcutta without the 
loss of a single life, and then drove the French from 
Chandernagore. At length, though his forces did not 
amount to more than three thousand men, he gained 
the glorious victory of Plassey in 1756, over an armj' 
of fifty thousand natives. This battle made the English 
masters of Bengal, and the last French possessions 
in India were taken from them in 1761. From that 
time the British dominions in India have been in- 
creasing almost without interruption. Clive himself, 
after some further successes, returned to England and 
received the honour of a peerage. 

While Pitt's administration thus saw the English 
arms victorious in every part of the globe, and while 
England was everywhere successful, George II. died, 
of a rupture of the heart, October 25th, 1760, at 
Kensington. 

Until his reign the English had retained the Julian 
year, which had been reformed, in 1582, by Pope 
Gregory XIII., and had been adopted by all European 
countries, except England, Sweden, and Kussia. In 
1752, however, the English also reformed their calendar, 
and the year was made to commence on the 1st of 
January instead of the 25th of March ; eleven days had, 
however, to be suppressed (from September 3rd to the 
13th) in order to bring the calendar in harmony with 
tho solar year. 



1760—1820.] GEORGE III. 209 



3. GEORGE m., 1760-1820. 

George III. was the eldest son of Frederic Louis, 
prince of Wales, who had died in 1751. His education 
had been rather neglected, as he had been kept in great 
privacy, that he might not he contaminated by the 
general profligacy of the time ; and it was probably 
the result of these early habits, that his court was 
perhaps the purest in Europe, and afforded an example 
which could not but have a good influence, not only 
upon the higher classes, but upon the nation generally* 
His intentions were always good and his habits 
simple, and in the discharge of his public duties he 
always showed a more than common activity ; but he 
was obstinate, and tenaciously clung to once formed 
opinions, whereby he sometimes injured the interests 
of the country. Both George III. and his queen, 
Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, were distinguished 
for their sincere piety. 

On his accession George was twenty-two years old, 
and married the year after. The throne was now 
again occupied by a king born and bred in England, 
and owing to Pitt's bold and successful administra- 
tion, the country had reached its highest glory. In 
1761 the English conquered Dominica in the West 
Indies, and Belleisle off the coast of Britanny. Erance 
v/as at the time desirous to negotiate for peace, and 
Pitt, bent upon the recovery of Minorca, offered 
Belleisle in exchange. But the French king objected 
to this, because he was engaged in forming what is 
called the "Family Compact," by which the three 
branches of the house of Bourbon, " France, Spain, and 
Naples," guaranteed their possessions to one another. 
Pitt, on receiving information of this compact which 
was clearly aimed at England, at once proposed to 
declare wai' against Spain, for he knew that that 
country was making great warlike preparations. As 
this proposal was rejected, Pitt resigned, and Lord 
Bute, who had long enjoyed the special favour of the 
court, became prime minister. 



210 HISTORY OF ENGLAND, [Chap. XII. 

As soon as the Spanish fleet returned from the West 
Indies, Spain declared war against England, 1762, and 
Bute was now compelled to do what Pitt had foreseen. 
An English force was sent out to assist the Portuguese, 
our old allies, who were attacked by the Spaniards, 
and succeeded in repelling them beyond the frontiers. 
At the same time our forces in the West Indies took 
the Caribbean Islands and Havannah, and in the East 
the Philippine Islands were captured. The English 
arms were yictorious everywhere, and a vast amount of 
booty was taken. But Bute was nevertheless most 
anxious for peace, which at length was concluded at 
Paris, in 1763, and put an end to the seven years' war. 
In this peace Minorca was restored to Britain in return 
for Belleisle; Havannah and the Philippine Islands 
were given back to Spain in return for Florida and 
Porto Piico. In the West Indies, also, the Islands 
Guadaloupe, Martinico, and St. Lucia were restored to 
Spain, while England retained Tobago, Dominica, 
St. Vincent, and. Grenada. 

This peace was opposed by Pitt and received with 
little favour by the people, who thought that, con- 
sidering our great successes, the terms were not suffi- 
ciently advantageous, and as Bute had been its chief 
promoter, he became very unpopular and had to resign. 
His place was taken by George Grenville, whose ad- 
ministration fell on troubled times. George Wilkes, a 
member of parliament and editor of a newspaper called 
the " North Briton," had written scurrilous articles on 
Bute and the peace, and had made offensive comments 
on a speech of the king. Grenville had him arrested 
on a "general warrant," which was illegal ; but Wilkes 
was nevertheless expelled from the House and out- 
lawed. After a few j^ears he came back to England, 
and in 1768 was returned to parliament for Middlesex. 
As, however, he was not allowed to take his seat, the 
people regarded the proceedings against him as a 
violation of popular freedom. Wilkes became the idol 
of the. mob, which looked upon him as the persecuted 
champion, of liberty, and tumults arose in various parts 
Qi the country^ in which several persons were killecj. 



1760—1820.] QWnm III. 211 

It was not till 1774 that Wilkes wag allowed to take 
his seat in the House. 

Another more serious blunder of Grenville's was 
committed in 1764, when, for the sake of increasing 
the revenue, he imposed duties on several articles of 
American commerce, and at the same time proposed to 
extend to the American colonies the English stamp 
duties. This last tax seems to have been esjoecially 
hateful to the colonists, for when the measure became 
known in America, it created the greatest excitement : 
meetings were held in all the colonies, and resolutions 
were passed denying to the mother country the right 
to tax the colonies without their consent. The bill 
was passed in 1765, and in the same year the adminis- 
tration was undertaken by the marquis of Eockingham, 
who, on the advice of Pitt, in 1766, repealed the stamp 
act and thus restored peace for a time. But the 
ministry of Eockingham had to give way to Pitt, who, 
on entering on his second administration, was created 
Earl of Chatham. As, however, his health began to 
fail, the chief business devolved upon Charles Towns- 
hend, who, in order to raise the revenue, in 1767, 
imposed import duties in America on glass, paper, 
painters' colours, and tea. The scenes of 1765 were 
repeated, and riots occurred in several places. In 
consequence of this the British government, giving waj^, 
abolished the above mentioned duties, except those 
on tea. This did not diminish the irritation, and the 
colonists, determined not to pay the duty, formed 
associations pledging themselves not to use the taxed 
articles. 

In the mean time there were frequent changes of the 
ministry. Townshend died in 1767, and was succeeded 
by Lord North. Chatham resigned his place in 1768 ; 
but, when he was restored to health, he came forward 
as a vehement opponent of the government. The Ame- 
ricans for a time remained quiet, and it was not till 
1773 that serious disturbances occurred. In that year 
three ships laden with tea arrived at Boston, when a 
number of men, disguised as Indians, boarded them, 
and threw the cargoes into the sea. Some stringent 



212 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. XII. 

measures, adopted in consequence of this outrage, com- 
pleted tlie rupture between the colonies and the mother 
country. In May, 1775, Massachusetts, with eleven 
other colonies, sent delegates to Philadelphia, where 
they resolved to cut off all commercial intercourse with 
England, so long as the hated statutes were not 
repealed. 

The cause of the colonies was supported in the British 
parliament by the ablest men, as Chatham, Bute, and 
C. J. Fox; but their advice was not heeded, and 
measures of coercion were adopted. The congress at 
Philadelphia had appointed George Washington com- 
mander-in-chief, and the first blood had been shed in 
April, in an affair at Lexington, where General Gage 
had a conflict with the Massachusetts militia ; and a 
few days later a regular battle was fought at Bunker's 
Hill, between an army of ten thousand Englishmen 
under the command of Gage and the Americans under 
Washington, in which the English suffered very se- 
verely. The war was now carried on by the Americans 
with great vigour. Canada was invaded and Quebec 
blockaded, though the Canadians showed little sym- 
pathy with the revolted colonies. On the 4th of July, 
1776, the congress issued the formal declaration of the 
independence of the North American States. The war 
was continued with unabated vigour, and Washington 
was generally very successful, though he had often to 
contend with great difficulties. When, in 1777, the 
Americans had gained the great battle of Saratoga, 
Louis XYI. of France openly espoused their cause, and 
allowed Lafayette and other nobles to enter the Ame- 
rican service. We cannot here follow the war in its 
details ; it is sufficient to state that, owing to the almost 
uninterrupted success of the colonists, Lord North was 
inclined to make peace on any terms short of the inde- 
pendence of the colonies. Chatham, though in feeble 
health, opposed such a peace with all the powers of his 
eloquence, although he, too, acknowledged the rights of 
the colonies. This effort was too much for him ; he fainted 
in the House, and died soon after at Hayes, in Kent. 

The Am.GTiQ?JzZ' declined entering; into ^.ny negotic.- 



1760—1820,3 



GEORGE III. 



213 



tions with England, and the war was continued for fiv© 
years longer. In 1779 Spain, and afterwards Holland, 
also became involved in the war, so that England had 
to contend not only against America, but against 
France, Spain, and Holland. The French even contem- 
plated an invasion of England. In America fortune 
seemed to favour the English arms ; but when, in 1781, 
Lord Cornwallis with seven thousand men capitulated, 
and surrendered York Town, the war on land was vir- 
tually at an end; but at sea it was continued on a 




BTHATH OP CHATHAM. 



grand scale — in the North Sea against the Dutch, in 
the British Channel and the Mediterranean against 
France and Spain. Minorca surrendered to the enemy, 
after a brave defence, in 1782 ; but Gibraltar main- 
tained itself most gallantly under General Elliot, against 
fearful odds. 

The successes gained by the English at sea put an 
end to the war with France and Spain ; and with Ame- 
rica a separate preliminary peace was concluded at 
Paris, towards the end of 1782, and finally settled in 
the following year. In this peace England recognised 



214 h:3toey of England. [Chap. Xil, 

the independence of the American States, and varions 
restitutions were made in the West Indies, Africa, and 
India. Spain received the two Floridas and Minorca ; 
to France was given the island of St. Pierre, Miqnelon, 
Chandernagore, Pondicherry, and other possessions. 
The Dutch also received back what they had lost. This 
protracted war with America added a hundred millions 
to our national debt, and was for the time a great 
calamity to England ; but the results of the American 
independence have in the end become a blessing to both 
nations. 

It is now time to turn our attention to the state of 
affairs at home. In 1778 the penal laws enacted against 
the Catholics in the time of William III. were repealed, 
and this repeal created among the Protestants, espe- 
cially in Scotland, such an alarm, that immediately 
associations were formed to oppose the act. In London 
the anti-Catholic party was headed by Lord George 
Gordon, a half-witted fanatic, who assembled in St. 
George's Fields a meeting of about sixty thousand per- 
sons, who walked in procession to Westminster to 
petition parliament to repeal the recent act in favour 
of the Catholics. As this was refused, the mob attacked 
and destroyed the Catholic chapels, forced open the 
prisons, and set fire to several parts of the town. For 
several days London was entirely at the mercy of the 
mob. At last, however, the rioters were overpowered 
by the military, though not until nearly five hundred 
persons had been killed or wounded. Twenty-one of 
the ringleaders were executed, and Lord Gordon ended 
his days in Newgate. 

In 1782 Lord North resigned his premiership, and 
was succeeded by Eockingham. About the same time 
there gradually arose a desire for constitutional reforms, 
in consequence of which the two great political parties 
of tories and whigs became more sharply marked, 
while a third, or radical party, was headed by such 
men as Wilkes and Home Tooke. William Pitt, the 
second son of Chatham, and the leading spirit among 
the whigs, proposed a reform of the system of electing 
members of parliament ; but, although such a reform 



1760-1820.] GEOEGE III. 215 

was reserved for a later period, some substantial im- 
provements were introduced in the House of Commons, 
which are still the law of the land. Kockingham died 
in the same year in which he had entered upon his 
second ministry, and was succeeded by Lord Shelburne, 
under whom Pitt became chancellor of the exchequer ; 
but, after some further changes, Pitt rose to the head of 
the government, and maintained his position, with one 
brief interruption, until his death in 1806. His great 
ability and popularity at once secured him a large 
majority in parliament, and many of the great measures 
passed a generation later, such as parliamentary reform, 
Catholic emancipation, the abolition of slavery, and 
others, were for the first time brought forward by that 
eminent minister. 

George III. was a thorough conservative, or tory, in 
his sentiments; while his son George, the prince of 
Wales, threw himself into the arms of the whigs, and 
in other respects led a life which could not but excite 
the displeasure of his father. He incurred enormous 
debts by his extravagance, and his residence in London 
was the scene of disgraceful revelries and debauchery. 
These things brought about an estrangement between 
father and son. In 1788 the king was seized with an 
attack of mental derangement ; but while parliament 
was discussing the regent to be appointed, the king 
recovered. 

The year 1789 is marked by the outbreak of the 
French Eevolution. We cannot here enter into the 
causes and the progress of that mighty outburst of 
popular indignation against oppression and the abuses 
of centuries. But the shock of the convulsion did not 
affect France alone : it was felt more or less in all the 
countries of Europe. At first the movement found 
many and powerful sympathisers in this country, espe- 
cially among the whigs ; but the frightful excesses of 
the Parisian mob soon filled all reasonable men with 
horror and disgust. In 1792 the French republicans 
called upon all nations to assert their freedom, and pro- 
mised their support, and democratic clubs were formed in 
several parts of England. When at length, in January, 



216 HISTOBY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. XII. 

1793, Louis XVI. was executed, all the monarcliies of 
Europe looked upon the bloody deed as a crime that 
ought to be avenged. While our government was still 
hesitating what to do, the French declared war against 
England and Holland, and their armies overran the 
countries bordering on France. The duke of York, the 
king's second son, was sent out with an army into 
Belgium, but could effect nothing, and returned home. 
The English fleet, under admiral Hood, took possession 
of Toulon, which was held by the French royalists ; 
but, as the town became untenable, the fleet withdrew, 
and took Corsica ; while lord Howe defeated the French 
fleet off Ushant in 1794, capturing twelve ships of the 
line. An attempt on the part of England to conclude 
peace came to nothing. 

Plans were now formed for an invasion of England. 
Two of these j)roved failures : one expedition, led by 
Hoche, attempted to make a descent upon Ireland, and 
the other intended to land an army on the south coast 
of England. As Holland had been conquered by the 
French, and Spain had allied itself with them, the 
attack was now to be made by their combined fleets. 
That of Spain, though vastly superior to the English, 
was attacked, under the command of John Jervis, oft' 
Cape St. Vincent, in February, 1797, and completely 
defeated. Horatio Nelson, who had already distin- 
guished himself in the capture of Corsica, was mainly 
instrumental in gaining this victory. The French and 
Dutch fleets experienced a similar fate off Camperdown. 

While the English arms were thus victorious every- 
where, affairs at home were anything but satisfactory. 
Owing to the enormous expenses of the war, public 
credit had sunk very low, and the bank of England had 
to suspend cash payments. In addition to this, the 
seamen of the Channel fleet in 1797 mutinied, partly 
because of their low pay, and partly on account of the 
severity of the discipline. When, however, the griev- 
ances of the men were remedied, the ships, one after 
another, returned to their duty ; and Parker and other 
leaders of the mutiny were executed, while the rest 
were pardoned _» 



1760—1820.] GEORGE III. 217 

In 1798 general Bonaparte undertook his famous 
expedition to Egypt. Nelson followed him, and almost 
totally destroyed the French fleet in the bat.tle of the 
Nile. At home the government had to contend with 
revolutionary agitations, and to prosecute men for 
sedition ; while Ireland, which had long been in a very 
unsettled state, had been incited by the French Eevo- 
lution to demand extensive reforms. Several privileges 
were granted, or rather old restrictions were removed ; 
but, not being satisfied with these measures, the Irish 
entered into a treasonable correspondence with the 
French, the result of which was the abovementioned 
attempt of Hoche to land a force in Ireland. In 1797 
the country had been placed under military law ; for 
the Irish were aiming at nothing less than an Irish 
republic, independent of England. In 1798 a general 
insurrection was j^lanned; but it was betrayed, and 
put down with a great deal of cruelty and bloodshed. 
The rebellion was finally crushed by general Lake at 
Vinegar Hill, near Wexford. It had, however, become 
evident that some decisive measures were absolutely 
necessary, and in May, 1800, Pitt proposed the union 
of Ireland with Great Britain, which was accepted by 
the English parliament, and carried through that of 
Ireland by means of bribes and threats ; for the Irish 
generally had a strong dislike to the measure. How- 
ever, the union took efiect on January 1, 1801, and 
Ireland henceforth sent one hundred members to the 
English parliament, and thirty-two Irish peers, elected 
for life, to the house of Lords. The Irish and English 
Protestant churches were united, so as to have the same 
doctrines and the same forms of worship. 

In 1800 Malta was surrendered to the English, after 
a blockade of two years. Eussia, Denmark, and Sweden 
agreed upon an armed neutrality in the war against 
Bonaparte. When in the follov/ing year the united 
parliament of the three kingdoms met, Pitt proposed to 
make certain concessions to the Irish Catholics ; but, as 
the king refused, Pitt resigned, thinking at the same 
time that his retirement might facilitate the conclusion 
of peace with France. He was succeeded by Addington. 



218 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. XlL 

As Prussia now also joined the northern league, 
an English fleet was sent into the Baltic, which, by 
the bombardment of Copenhagen, detached Denmark 
from the confederacy ; but the league was soon after 
broken u^^, and a new one was formed between Britain, 
Sweden, and Denmark. On the whole, England may 
be said to have been successful during that year ; for 
not only had the northern league been broken up, but 
the French had been defeated at Alexandria. At 
length a peace with France was concluded in March, 
1802, at Amiens, in which England agreed to give up 
all her colonial conquests except Ceylon and Trinidad, 
to restore Egypt to Turkey, Malta to the knights of 
St. John, and the Caj)e of Good Hope to Holland. 

But Napoleon soon found reasons to pick a fresh 
quarrel, complaining that Malta was not evacuated 
quickly enough, and that French refugees found an 
asylum in England. After the peace, large numbers of 
English had gone to France, and Napoleon now ordered 
them all to be arrested. This completed the rupture, 
and Napoleon formed the plan of invading England 
from Boulogne. A large camp was formed, a flotilla of 
gun-boats was assembled, and most extensive prepara- 
tions were made in all the French ports. The insolence 
and the outrages committed by Napoleon at last led all 
the European states to unite against him, with the 
exception of Prussia, which, by keeping aloof, hoped to 
obtain Hanover, which was then in the hands of the 
French. At Boulogne everything was ready, and the 
fleets from Toulon and Spain were to sail to the West 
Indies, there to assemble, and thence to return to 
Europe. It was expected that their united efforts 
would be able to defy any English armament. But this 
scheme was thwarted by Sir Eobert Calder, who gained 
a victory over the returning fleets, not far from Cape 
Finisterre, in 1805. Nelson had in the mean time 
twice attacked the flQet at Boulogne without success, 
and had in vain pursued the fleets on their way to the 
West Indies ; but on October the 21st he fought the 
splendid battle of Trafalgar, and compelled the French 
admiral Villeneuve to take shelter in Cadiz. The vie- 



1760—1820,] 



GEORGE III, 



219 



tory was complete, but Nelson was killed. " Thank 
God ! I have done my duty," were the last words spoken 
by the dying hero, as he closed a career of fame by a 
death of glory, and established a clear and unquestioned 
title to the first place in the proud roll of England's 
most illustrious naval commanders. This victory put 
an end to all fear of invasion ; but the joy of the Eng- 
lish people was marred by the news of the gallant Nel- 
son's death. 




DEATH OP KELSON. 



The great army assembled at Boulogne was now sud- 
denly turned against Austria. Pitt, who had displayed 
the utmost energy in prosecuting the war against the 
"unprincipled enemy, was worn out by the excitement 
of the times, and died in 1806. He was succeeded by 
lord Grenville, of whose ministry Fox was the lead- 
ing spirit; but Fox too died in the same year. The 
military achievements of England during this year 
w^ere not great, while the ambition and success of 
Napoleon on the continent were unbounded. He was 
now resolved to ruin the commerce of Britain by shut- 
tins: it out from all commercial communication with 
the continent. The peace of Tilsit, in 1807, between 
Napoleon and Eussia, contained a secret article, placing 
the fleet of Denmark at the disposal of France. In 
order to prevent this, a powerful English armament 
was sent out to demand th© surrender of the Danish 



220 HISTORY OF ENGLANDo [Chap, XII. 

fleet. As this was refused, Copenhagen was invested 
and bombarded, and the Danish fleet had to be brought 
out. 

Meanwhile, in 1808, Portugal was overrun by a. French 
army, and Joseph, Napoleon's eldest brother, was made 
king of Spain. The British government sent an army, 
under Sir Arthur Wellesley, afterwards duke of Welling- 
ton, to Spain, and, after two battles, the French, by the 
convention of Cintra, were obliged to evacuate Portugal. 
The French rule was by no means popular in Spain : 
but still, when in 1809 the British army, under Sir John 
Moore, advanced from Portugal into Spain, he did not 
meet with the support he had expected, and had to face 
fifty thousand French, commanded by Soult. Moore 
fell in the battle of Corunna, and his forces withdrew, 
leaving the French masters of the country. Wellesley 
now took the command in Spain, and gained the bril- 
liant victory of Talavera, in which the French lost ten 
thousand men. But, while success was thus beginning 
to dawn upon our forces, an expedition to Walcheren, 
which was designed to take Antwerp, utterly failed, 
and the armament had to return home, after the loss of 
about seven thousand men from fever. 

In 1810 Napoleon, having made peace with Austria, 
was enabled to turn a very large force into Spain, and 
hoped thereby to drive the " English leopards " into 
the sea. Massena, with eighty thousand men, met "Wel- 
lesley at Busaco, and lost five thousand ; but*the English 
fell back on the famous lines of Torres Yedras, which 
had been constructed by Wellesley, and the French, 
being unable to follow them there, were obliged to 
retreat. In the beginning of 1811 Wellington advanced 
from these lines, and pursued his victorious career as 
far as the Pj^renees, gaining victory after victory, until 
towards the end of 1813 Soult was driven back into 
France. 

In England Grenville had been succeeded by the 
duke of Portland, and, upon the death of the latter 
in 1809, Spencer Perceval became prime minister. In 
1810 George III. became permanently insane, and the 
prince of Wales henceforth governed the kingdom as 



1760— 1820.] GEORaE III, 221 

regent during the remaining years of his father's life. 
Perceval was shot in the lobby of the House of Com- 
mons in 1812, and was succeeded by lord Liverpool. 
About the same time America declared war against 
England, on account of some commercial disputes ; but 
of this we shall have to speak hereafter. The same 
year witnessed the gigantic but disastrous expedition 
of Napoleon into Eussia. Having lost in that campaign 
nearly half a million of men, he made a last effort at 
Leipzig in 1813, and, being thoroughly defeated there, 
he returned to France, whither he was followed by the 
Allies, and forced to sign his abdication at Fontaine- 
bleau in 1814. Being allowed to retain the title of 
emperor. Napoleon retired to Elba, and Louis XVIII. , 
brother of Louis XVI., was proclaimed king of France. 
A peace was then concluded at Paris, in which England, 
after all her losses in men and money, and after so many 
brilliant victories, obtained little more than Malta, the 
Cape of Good Hope, Mauritius, Ceylon, and some West 
Indian islands. During these events Wellington, having 
gained the brilliant victories of Talavera, Albuera, 
Ciudad Eodrigo, Badajoz, Salamanca, and Vittoria, 
pursued the enemy into France, and defeated them 
again at Orthez and Toulouse. After the conclusion of 
the peace he spent some time in Spain to settle the 
affairs of that country, and then returned to England, 
where honours and wealth were showered upon him by 
a grateful people, for the noble victories he had won 
over an unscrupulous usurper and tyrant, who had 
trodden down nearly all Europe under his iron foot. 

In the peace of Paris it had been arranged that a 
European congress should meet at Vienna to settle all 
the remaining details. The congress assembled on 
January 1st, 1815, and had not far advanced, when it 
was surprised by the news that Napoleon had escaped 
from Elba, had landed at Cannes, and was received 
with popular acclamations. The troops, deserting the 
royal standard, joined Napoleon, who entered Paris, 
while the king took to flight. The congress at Vienna 
immediately declared Napoleon a public enemj?-, and 
all the states there represented agreed to unite their 



222 



HISTOBY OF ENdLAND. 



[Chap. XII. 



forces against him. Armies at once set out to meet 
him, and, after several minor engagements, the battle 
of Waterloo was fought June 18th, 1815, in which the 
Allies, commanded by Wellington, completely defeated 
the French army. Napoleon, having lost thirty thousand 
men, fled to Paris, and, finding that his life was not safe, 




WELLINGTON AT WATEELOO. 



he abdicated in favour of his son. Thus ended the famous 
hundred days of his second empire, from March 21st to 
June 29th. Napoleon surrendered to Captain Maitland, 
of the Bellerophon, and threw himself upon the hos- 
pitality of the English, but, on the advice of the Allies, 
he was conveyed to the island of St. Helena, A\'here he 
died in 1821. The second peace of Paris, which was 
signed towards the end of 1815, settled the affairs of 
Prance, but left England pretty much in the position 
already assigned to her. 

^ The congress of Vienna continued its sittings, and 
distributed the countries of Europe among the different 
sovereigns, apparently without any regard to nation- 
ality or the Tv^iBhea of the people, which, some years 
later, led to fresh disturbances. The enormous expenses 



1760—1820.] GEOKGE III. 223 

incurred during the protracted war against Napoleon 
had increased our national debt to nearly eight hundred 
millions. 

It has already been mentioned that in 1812 a war 
broke out between this country and the United States 
of America. It arose from the fact that Napoleon, by 
cutting off all continental commerce with England, had 
provoked the English government to measures of retalia- 
tion, in consequence of which the commerce of America 
was nearly destroyed. This was keenly felt by the 
Americans, who stopped all intercourse with England. 
As, moreover, the English claimed the right to search 
all American vessels, in order to prevent English sailors 
serving in them, war was declared. An attack was 
made on Canada in 1813, and the Americans captured 
Toronto ; but in the following year they were unsuc- 
cessful, and Washington was taken by general Poss, 
who burned a great part of the city. He himself was 
afterwards killed in an attack upon Baltimore, and the 
English suffered serious reverses both there and at New 
Orleans. This unhappy war was brought to a close by 
the peace of Ghent, in December, 1814, in which it was 
settled that both countries should give up the conquests 
they had made. 

England had in the mean time greatly suffered from 
the stoppage of commerce, and the consequent dearth 
of provisions, combined with heavy taxes, which were 
rendered unavoidable by the exigencies of the war. 
The agitation for parliamentary and other reforms was 
spreading, and the country was altogether in an uneasy 
condition. George III. continued in his state of mental 
aberration until his death, on January 29th, 1820, after a 
reign of nearly sixty years, the longest in English history. 
One of his sons, the duke of Kent, was married to Vic- 
toria, princess of Saxe-Coburg, the mother of our present 
queen. The princess Charlotte, the only daughter of 
the prince regent, was married to prince Leopold of 
Saxe-Coburg, afterwards king of the Belgians ; but she 
died in 1817, deeply lamented by the whole nation, as 
she was universally beloved and the heir-presumptive 
to the English throne. 



224 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. XII, 

4. GEOBGE IV,, 1820-1830. 

The accession of George IV. was little more than a 
change of title, as he had already reigned for ten 
years as prince regent. He was born in 1762, so 
that on his accession he had attained the age of fifty- 
seven. Until his eighteenth year he had been kept in 
great seclusion, and almost in a state of pupilage ; but 
when he gained his freedom he broke through all 
restraint, indulging in extravagance and dissipation, 
and parliament had to pay his debts more than once. 
His mind, however, was highly cultivated, and his 
manners very polished, and in social intercourse he 
was generally kind and amiable, but his good qualities 
were spoiled by his habits of dissipation. 

In 1795 he married Caroline of Brunswick, to whom 
he conceived a great dislike. The only child of this 
union was the princess Charlotte, born in 1796 ; and 
soon after her birth the parents separated. The princess 
Caroline lived for some years in England, partly at 
Charlton and partly at Blackheath. In 1806 she was 
accused of unchastity ; but though the royal commission 
appointed to inquire into the matter acquitted her of 
the principal charge, her conduct was censured as un- 
becoming her station. After this she withdrew to the 
continent. When in 1820, on the accession of her 
husband, she returned to England to claim her rights as 
queen, a bill of pains and penalties was passed against 
her in the House of Lords, but was abandoned by the 
ministers, because the popular excitement was intense, 
and there was no hope of carrying it through the 
Commons. On the day of the coronation she made her 
appearance at Westminster Abbey, but was repulsed, 
and little more than a fortnight later death put an end 
to her troubled life. The conduct of the king towards 
his wife during these proceedings deprived him of the 
last remnant of popularity among his subjects. 

The distress prevailing in England, in consequence of 
the JSTapoleonio wars and the depression of commerce, 
still continued during the reign of George IV., and was 
increased by heavy taxation and unfavourable harvests. 



1820—1830.] 



GEORCtE IV. 



225 



In addition to all this, a fearful commercial crisis 
occurred in 1825, a result of excessive speculation and 
over-trading. Many banking establisliments failed, and 
liundreds of persons who had lived in easy circum- 
stances were at once reduced to poverty. To mitigate 
the evil, sj'stematic emigration was devised, which 
caused a great influx of colonists into Canada and 
Australia. But this and other measures could not 
wholly remove the evil. People began to look about 
for further remedies, and the opinion began to spread 
that the only effectual remedy lay in a reform of the 
system of parliamentary representation. 




■\vEi3TinN3TSR ABEi:?. 



This and the question of Catholic emancipation 
seemed absolutely to demand some kind of solution. 
George Canning, who had been in the ministry since 
1822, became prime minister in 1827. He had already 
given his support to a bill brought in by Sir Francis 
Burdett to repeal the disabilities under which the 
Catholics were still suffering, and the liberal party now 
looked to him for such a measure ; but the king declared 
that such a thing was incompatible with his coronation 
oath, and that he would resist it. Canning died the 



226 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. XII. 

sajne year, and was succeeded by viscount Godericli, 
who resigned after a few months, and made room for 
the duke of Wellington, who was known to be opposed 
to all concession. In Ireland a regular organisation 
had been formed by the eloqiient Daniel O'Connell, 
under the name of " The Catholic Association," for the 
purpose of obtaining a repeal of the Catholic disabilities. 
A great stimulus was given to this movement in 1828 
by the repeal of the old Test and Corporation Acts, 
whereby Protestant dissenters were greatly benefited. 

Just at this time O'Connell had been elected to 
represent the county of Clare in parliament, and it was 
felt that, if he were not allowed to take his seat, it 
might lead to very serious consequences. Such was 
Wellington's view, which induced him to announce a 
Catholic Relief bill, which was brought forward by Sir 
Eobert Peel, and passed both houses of parliament, 
against a formidable opposition, in 1829. By this bill 
the Catholics were admitted to equal rights with the 
Protestants, except that no Catholic could become 
regent, lord chancellor, or viceroy of Ireland ; they 
likewise still remained excluded from appointments in 
colleges and universities. In like manner the old law 
remained in force that an English king or queen could 
not marry a Catholic without the forfeiture of the 
crown. This bill obtained the sanction of George lY., 
but with great reluctance and vexation ; for in the 
question about Catholic emancipation he had completely 
adopted the views of the tories. During the latter 
part of his life he lived in seclusion at Windsor, where 
he died on June 26th, 1830. 

Besides the two great measures already mentioned, 
much also was done in this king's reign to improve the 
law, especially the navigation laws, by which all Eu- 
ropean countries at peace with England were put on 
the same footing. Parliamentary reform, and the abo- 
lition of slavery, were indeed discussed, but had to be 
postponed to a later date. 

The only military undertakings during the reign of 
George IV. were a war against the Burmese, on account 
of their inroads into the territory of Bengal, and tho 



1830—1837,] WILLIAM IV. ' 227 

support afforded to the Greeks in, tlieir attempt to 
shake off the yoke of Turkey. A fleet of English, 
French, and Eussian vessels, under the command of 
Sir Edward Codrington, defeated the Egyptian and 
Turkish fleets in the great battle of Navarino, in 1827, 
which led to the independence of Greece. 

5. WILLIAM IV., 1830-1837. 

William IV. was the third son of George III., and 
nearly sixty-five years old when he succeeded his 
brother. He had entered the naval service at an early 
age, and rose to the rank of lord high admiral. Like 
most sailors, he was frank and good-natured, and far 
more popular than his brother. In 1818 he married 
princess Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen, by whom he had 
two daughters, who died very young. During his 
reign the English court was distinguished for moral 
purity and the happy domestic life of the king and 
queen. 

We have already seen that the demand for par- 
liamentary reform had become pretty general in Eng- 
land, and the commotions in continental states about 
the time of William's accession greatly contributed to 
bring this question in England to a crisis. Attempts 
at such reforms had been made as early as the year 
1782 by the younger Pitt, and after the outbreak of the 
French Eevolution the demand became both more in- 
tense and more widely spread. The prevailing distress 
also had its influence, and the success of the agitation 
for Catholic emancipation inspired a hope that par- 
liamentary reform might likewise be carried, if the 
agitation were carried on with vigour and energy. 
When the duke of Wellington openly declared his de- 
termination to resist all changes in the parliamentary 
system, there arose throughout the country such a state 
of excitement that a civil war seemed to be imminent. 
The duke had accordingly to resign, and was succeeded 
by earl Grey. 

The new ministry favoured the idea of reform, which 
had become absolutely necessary, for there were places, 



228 



HISTOBY OF ENGLAND. 



[Chap. SII. 



with very few, or no inliabitants at all, whicli returned 
members to parliament, nominated by the great land- 
owners, while the large manufacturing towns of recent 
growth were not represented at all. A Eeform Bill for 
England and Wales was brought in in 1831 by lord 
John Kussell, which passed the Commons, but was 
rejected by the Lords. Terrible riots now occurred in 
various parts of the kingdom, in which many lives 
were lost, and much property destroyed. During these 
troubles England was visited by the Asiatic cholera, 
which carried off thousands of victims. 

In 1832 the Reform Bill was brought in again and 
accepted by the Commons. The Lords were as bitterly 
opposed to it as before, and the ministry had to threaten 
to induce the king to create a number of new peers, to 




PASSING OP THE REFOKM BILI,. 



secure the passing of the bill. But the moderate coun- 
sels of the duke of Wellington prevailed upon the king 
to persuade the opposition peers to abstain from voting ; 
thus the bill was carried, and became law on June 7th, 
1832. By it fifty-six boroughs were disfranchised ; 
thirty places which had hitherto returned two mem- 



1830-1837.] WILLIAM IV. 229 

"bers liencefortii only sent one. Of tlife places tlms 
made vacant, sixty-five were given to counties, and 
twenty-two to newly-created boronglis, each of whicli 
elected two members, and the remaining two to new 
horonghs, each of which returned one member. The 
constituencies also were enlarged, for tenants of land 
with a rental of 501. a-year received a vote for the 
county, and householders paying a yearly rent of 101. 
received a vote for the borough. Similar acts were 
afterwards passed for Scotland and Ireland, though 
with some differences, especially in regard to Ireland. 

The first reformed parliament in 1833 carried several 
important measures, for the tory party seemed almost 
paralysed. Ten Irish bishoprics were abolished; the 
trade to India and China, which had hitherto been 
monopolised by the East India Company, was thrown 
open to private enterprise, and 20,000Z. were voted 
to promote elementary education. But the great mea- 
sure of the session was an act for the entire abolition 
of slavery in the West Indies, which was effected at a 
cost of 20,000,000Z. as compensation to the slave owners. 

During the session of 1834 lord Grey resigned, and 
lord Melbourne, who succeeded him, carried an im- 
portant measure for the amendment of the poor law, 
by which out-door relief was almost entirely done away 
with, while the local overseers were controlled by a 
central poor law board in London. The old system of 
granting relief to the poor had in reality been an en- 
couragement to vice and indolence, and had demoralised 
the lower orders to an incredible extent. Towards the 
end of this year the king suddenly dismissed his 
ministers, and sent for Sir Eobert Peel, who undertook 
the administration on so-called liberal-conservative 
principles. But as he was not generally trusted, and 
was unable to command a majority in the House, he 
resigned in 1835, and lord Melbourne returned to office. 
Under his administration a measure for municipal re- 
form was carried, the business of boroughs having 
hitherto been managed, or, rather, mismanaged, by 
cliques, for their own benefit. The constituencies wera 
enlarged, and henceforth town councils v/ere appointed 



230 HISTORY OF ENaLAND. [Chap. XII. 

by popular election. Among other improvements in- 
troduced at the same time we may mention the insti- 
tution of civil marriages, and the general system of 
registering births, marriages, and deaths, which were 
passed in 1836. 

Ireland, however, still remained a source of trouble 
to the government, for O'Connell now headed a new 
agitation for the repeal of the union with England, 
which gave rise to many disorders, in consequence of 
which coercive measures had to be adopted. 

William lY. died on June 20th, 1837, and was suc- 
ceeded in England by his niece, the princess Victoria, 
and in Hanover by his brother Ernest, duke of Cum- 
berland, as by the Salic law females are excluded from 
the succession in Hanover. 

6. VICTORIA, 1837. 

Queen Victoria is the daughter of Edward duke of 
Kent, brother of William IV., and of Victoria, daughter 
of Francis duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, and was born 
on May 24th, 1819. She lost her father when only 
nine months old, but was educated in the most careful 
and judicious manner by her mother. Three years 
after her accession, 1840, she married prince Albert, 
son of the duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, who afterwards 
obtained the title of Prince Consort. It is unnecessary 
here to dwell upon the public and private virtues, and 
the truly constitutional spirit with which queen Vic- 
toria rules her vast domains, for they are known and 
appreciated by all, and we shall confine ourselves to a 
brief statement of the principal events which have 
eccurred during her reign. 

The Eeform Bill of 1832, which many thought had 
gone too far, was considered by others not to have 
done enough for the people ; and the latter, or radical 
party, were not a little irritated at the declaration of 
lord John Eussell in 1837, that that measure was final. 
The more violent portion of the party obtained the 
name of Chartists, from the fact that at a meeting held 
at Birmingham, in 1838, they demanded a people's 



1837.] VICTOKIA. 231 

charter, containing six points — universal suffrage, vote 
by ballot, triennial parliaments, equal electoral districts, 
the abolition of property qualification, and salaries for 
members of parliament. Tbeir agitation was not always 
carried on in a lawful and constitutional manner, and 
the violent way in wbicb they endeavoured to force their 
opinions upon the country, rendered severe measures 
unavoidable. Some of the leaders who openly advised 
the people to have recourse to physical force — Frost, 
Williams, and Jones — were arrested and transported for 
life. The result was that for some years they remained 
quiet, but the outbreak of the French revolution, in 
1848, gave them fresh courage, and, headed byFeargus 
O'Connor, they hoped by a monster demonstration to 
frighten the government into the concession of their 
demands. Some twenty thousand men, with a gigantic 
petition, containing, it is said, five millions of signa- 
tures, walked to Westminster. London was alarmed, 
and all business suspended, but a vast number of special 
constables and the military, stationed in various parts 
of the town, prevented disorders, and the mob, having 
delivered the petition, dispersed, without having done 
much mischief. Effectual precautionary measures thus 
put an end to what might have become formidable and 
dangerous. 

In Ireland the agitation for a repeal of the union 
was continued. The Catholic Eelief Bill passed in the 
previous reign did not satisfy the Irish, and an asso- 
ciation was formed to restore a separate Irish par- 
liament. This association spread very rapidly, and 
assumed formidable dimensions; monster meetings 
were held, and O'Connell pledged himself to have 
an Irish parliament before the end of the year 1843. 
At last the government felt it to be its duty to in- 
terfere and forbid such meetings. The ringleaders — 
O'Connell, his son and eight others — were brought 
to trial, and condemned to fines and imprisonment; 
but on their appeal to the House of Lords, the verdict 
was annulled. From this time the agitation ceased, 
until, in 1848, it grew into a rebellion, which had to 
be put doAvn by main force, and Mitchell and other 



232 HISTOKY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. XII. 

ringleaders were condemned to penal servitude. In 
1866 the so-called Fenian conspiracy threatened to 
become dangerous, but again was successfully com- 
bated. 

In the very year of queen Victoria's accession, o, 
rebellion broke out in Canada, originating in disputes 
between the two nationalities (French and English) of 
the two Oanadas, which led to resistance against the 
constituted authorities. The rebels were supplied with 
troops and stores from the United States, until the 
unlawful proceeding was stopped by a proclamation of 
the president. With the help of the troops stationed 
in the country, and the loyal support of the inhabit- 
ants of the upper province, the insurrection was put 
down, and in the following year, 1838, lord Durham 
settled the affairs of the country in a conciliatory spirit, 
and endeavoured to establish the union of the pro- 
vinces by a popular constitution; but, being assailed 
by his enemies at home, he resigned. His successor, 
Poulett Thomson, afterwards lord Sydenham, however, 
adopting the same policy, succeeded in accomplishing 
what lord Durham had attempted. The two provinces 
were united, and the seat of government was at the 
same time removed from Quebec to Montreal. 

The ministry of lord Melbourne, whose wise and 
moderate counsels had guided the young queen during 
the first years of her reign, came to an end in 1841, 
and was followed by that of Sir Eobert Peel, who, 
by his liberal and moderate views, had, in the mean- 
time, secured the confidence of the nation. The poorer 
classes suffered periodically from the high prices of 
provisions, which were the natural result of the many 
restrictions upon trade. In 1842 the great distress pre- 
vailing all over the country, especially in the manufac- 
turing I districts, gave rise to disturbances in some 
places, and the government began seriously to consider 
the matter. Sir Kobert Peel, being at leligth convinced 
of the necessity of remedying this evil, proposed and 
carried a series of measures calculated to encourage 
commerce and manufacture, and reduced the taxation 
on numerous articles necessary in ordinary life. In 



1837.] VICTORIA. 233 

order to make up the deficit thereby created in the 
revenue, he imposed a property and income tax, which 
fell only on the npper and middle classes, and whicli 
has been maintained ever since, being sometimes di- 
minished and sometimes increased according to the 
exigencies of the state. 

A few years experience showed the wisdom of Peel's 
policy, and the idea of free trade was gaining ground 
every day ; but what pressed most heavily upon the 
poorer classes were the corn laws, which did not allow 
the importation of foreign grain, except at a high 
duty. Peel therefore introduced a sliding scale, that 
is, in times of a bad harvest the duty was lowered, but 
rose again when there had been an abundant harvest. It 
had, however, become evident that what >vas called 
protection of native industry was a delusion, and that 
free trade would be the best policy. The Anti-Corn- 
Law League, which had been founded, in 1838, by 
Eichard Cobden, made every effort to induce Parlia- 
ment to abolish those obnoxious laws. Cobden was 
ably supported by Yilliers and John Bright. A de- 
ficiency in the harvest in 1845, and the blight which 
affected the potato crop, both in England and L'eland, 
greatly aided the efforts of the League, and, in 1846, 
Peel, in spite of the most desperate opposition of the 
protectionists, succeeded in carrying the abolition of 
the corn laws, leaving only one shilling duty per 
quarter. The opposition to their repeal had been very 
powerful to the last, for farmers and landowners ima- 
gined that such a measure would be their ruin. But 
the result has proved the contrary. 

After having carried this, and other useful measures, 
Sir Eobert Peel retired from office, and was succeeded 
by lord John Eussell, who continued the commercial 
policy of his predecessor. Legislation has been carried 
on in the same liberal spirit ever since, down to the 
present day : the franchise has been greatly extended, 
by a second Eeform Act, in 1868, by which household 
suffrage has been established ; the last grievances of 
dissenters have been removed; the Irish church has 
been disestablished; the universities have been thrown 



234 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [Chap. XII. 

open to all her Majesty's subjects, without any distinc- 
tion of creed ; and a law has been passed providing 
elementary education for the whole nation ; it is only 
to be regretted that this last law did not precede the 
extension of the franchise. 

While at home the reign of Victoria has thus been 
characterised by steady progress, it has not been alto- 
gether free from the troubles and horrors of war. We 
have already mentioned the rebellion in Canada ; three 
years later, 1840, the English government became in- 
volved in a war between the sultan and Mehemet Ali, 
pacha of Egypt, who had cast off the allegiance to his 
master and conquered a portion of Syria. As England 
could not allow the Turkish empire to be dismembered, 
commodore Napier was sent out with a fleet, and 
having taken the principal port towns of Syria, and 
bombarded Acre, compelled the pacha to give up his 
conquests and content himself with the position of 
hereditary viceroy of Egypt. 

A more formidable war broke out with Eussia in 
1854. The rulers of that country, being the heads of 
the Greek church of Eussia, had for more than a century 
aimed at gaining possession of Constantinople, as the 
most important and convenient centre of the nations 
belonging to the Greek church. The affairs of Europe 
were now in such a state that no power seemed likely 
to come to the assistance of Turkey, and a dispute be- 
tween the Greek and Latin Christians about certain holy 
places at Jerusalem seemed to the emperor Nicholas 
a favourable opportunity for attacking the " sick man," 
as he called the Turkish empire. He claimed the 
right to act as the head of the Greek church in Turkey, 
and, as this was rejected, he marched a force across the 
Pruth in 1853, into Moldavia and Wallachia, where- 
upon the sultan declared war against him. England 
and France, being opposed to the dismemberment of 
Turkey, now likewise declared war against Eussia, 
and a force under lord Eaglan was sent into the 
Crimea, while a fleet under Sir Charles Napier. sailed 
into the Baltic, to keep the Eussians engaged in that 
quarter also. In this war the British soldiers gained 



1837.] VICTORIA. 235 

imperisliable renown by their bravery in the battles of 
the Alma, Balaclava, and Inkerman, but suffered se- 
verely through lack of organization and foresight, 
especially in regard to the commissariat and other 
things which have to be provided on the outbreak of 
a war. In 1855 the king of Sardinia also joined the 
Allies. But the capture of the strong fortress of Se- 
bastopol, and some other places, brought the war to a 
close, and a peace was concluded at Paris in 1856, in 
which Kussia gave up the claims which had been the 
cause of the war, and was further obliged to dismantle 
the fortifications of Sebastopol, to give up her protec- 
torate over the Danubian principalities, and to with- 
draw her fleet from the Black Sea. 

In the East wars had been carried on against the 
Chinese, Afghans, and Indian chiefs, almost from the 
commencement of the reign of Victoria, and on some 
occasions the British soldiers suffered severe defeats, 
but the ultimate consequences were generally favour- 
able to England and the cause of civilization. Thus, 
although the war against China was scarcely justifiable, 
the peace which was concluded in 1842 gave to England 
the island of Hong Kong, and opened several Chinese 
ports to English merchants. The accounts of these 
Eastern wars belong to the history of the East rather 
than to that of England, still we cannot leave un- 
noticed the outbreak of the terrible Indian mutiny. No 
sooner had the Eussian war ended in the humiliation of 
Eussia, than news reached Europe of a terrible mutiny in 
India, which was accompanied by most horrible cruelties 
perpetrated by the natives against Europeans. The 
real cause of this mutiny lay, no doubt, in the general 
want of sympathy of Europeans with the native popu- 
lation, and it did not require much to cause a general 
rising. The mutiny was crushed, after much bloodshed 
and cruelty on both sides, in 1859 ; but one of its good 
results was, that the government of India was trans- 
ferred from the East India Company to the crown, in 
consequence of which a secretary for India was ap- 
pointed, who is assisted by a council of fifteen. 

In 1861 the Prince Consort died of a fever at Windsor, 



23(5 HISTORY OP ENGLAND. [Chap, XIL 

leaving behind him a reputation for wisdom and dis- 
cretion such as* few men in his position could have 
achieved ; for although on his first arrival in England 
he was met by much ill-feeling, simply because he was 
a German, he ended in being beloved and respected by 
all classes of Englishmen. His beneficent influence 
had made itself felt in every department of social life ; 
he had been a true promoter of art and literature, and 
gave to British industry in particular a great and 
lasting impulse by the first great international exhibi- 
tion in Hyde Park, in 1851. Literature, industry, and 
the arts, both high and industrial, had found in him 
a sincere and intelligent patron. 



A CHAPTER ON ENGIISH PROGRESS, 



IN 



LITERATURE, ART, SCIENCE, COMMERCE, 
MANUFACTURE, &c. 



There is notliing more astonishing in the history of the 
world than the story of the progress of England from 
the earliest times until now. Long before Csesar landed, 
the Phoenicians had come from the far east to possess 
themselves of the mineral treasures of the Scilly Isles ; 
and there are some who think it by no means impro- 
bable that English metal may have been used in the 
construction of Solomon's temple. Be that as it may, 
the people themselves made but slight use of their 
mineral wealth. Their implements were at one time 
made of stone ; though at a later period we find them 
making knives, swords, and arrowheads out of bronze — • 
a mixture of copper and tin. Their clothing consisted 
of the skins of beasts, except in the south, where they 
were sometimes visited by Gallic merchants, from 
whom they learned something of civilisation. Before 
Caesar's galleys appeared off the coast of Kent, the 
Briton could carry his biggest ship upon his back, for 
it consisted only of wicker-work covered with hide. In 
such a cockle-shell the faint-hearted native timorously 
paddled along the shore, for he was unwilling to brave 
the dangers of the sea. How strikingly do these facts 
contrast with the use now made of our mineral wealth, 



238 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. 

and with the naval glory of which we are in these days 
so proud 1 

The Eomans were the first to teach the useful arts 
to the Briton ; but he was slow to learn, and it was not 
till the bold and enterprising Saxon appeared in the 
land that the real progress of the country commenced. 



THE SAXON PERIOD, (410 A.D.—1066 a.d.) 

LITERATURE. — Of the earlier portion of this period 
there is little to tell. It was only after the introduction 
of Christianity that a literature began to develop. The 
monasteries then became the schools, and the friars the 
teachers, of the time. Books were few and precious, and 
generally were written in the Latin language. The most 
notable prose writer was the Venerable Bede, a monk of 
Wearmouth, who Avrote in Latin ' The History of the 
Church of the Angles,' which, as has been mentioned, was 
afterwards translated into Anglo-Saxon by King Alfred. 
This distinguished sovereign became the translator and 
editor of several other well-known Latin works. The 
only poet of note who wrote in Anglo-Saxon was 
Caedmon, a cowherd in connection with a monastery at 
Whitby. His poetry consists of paraphrases of por- 
tions of the Bible. Among the few other remarkable 
persons may be mentioned the name of Gildhas, the 
first historian of Britain; of Aldhelm, the famous 
Latinist ; of Alcuin, the confidential friend of Charle- 
magne ; and of John Scotus, the most celebrated scholar 
of his day. It was during this period that the two great 
English universities were founded. 

INDUSTRIES.— The occupations of the bulk of the 
Anglo-Saxons were war and the chase. Their wants 
were simple and easily supplied. Their houses, though 
strong, were rudely built, and their manner of life was 
coarse and almost savage. The females were more in- 
dustrious than the men, and made what articles of cloth- 
ing were then in use. A few foreign workers in glass 



A CHAPTER ON ENGLISH PROaRESS, 239 

had arrived at Wearmoutli; but the people were utterly 
ignorant of the art. Painting on glass, bell-making, 
&c., were often the occupations of the leisure hours of 
the friars, a knowledge of these arts having been de- 
rived from the Continent. 

COINAGE.— The silver coins of the Anglo-Saxons 
were called pennies, and were equal in value to two shil- 
lings of our money. The styca was the only copper coin, 
and was rather over the value of our penny. The 
money, both silver and copper, was miserably made, 
and the designs were curious and grotesque. 



THE EARLY NORMAN PERIOD. (1066 A.D.--1154 a.d.) 

LITERATURE.— William the Conqueror was fond 
of learning, and brought with him from Normandy 
several scholarly men, who did great service to the 
cause of education and literature. Among these were 
Lanfranc and Anselm, who occupied high positions in 
the church, and, both by practice and precept, encou- 
raged the people to greater diligence in their studies. 
Schools were now, for the first time, established apart 
from monasteries. French became the court language, 
and an effort was made to make it the language of the 
country; but the Saxons held most obstinately to 
their own expressive tongue, and ultimately compelled 
their conquerors to speak it too. The best history of 
this period is to be found in The Saxon^ Chronicle, 
which was compiled by various monks in the different 
monasteries to which they belonged. The greater 
number of the writers of this time still wrote in Latin. 
The principal authors were William of Malmesbury, 
Henry of Huntingdon, and Geoffrey of Monmouth, all 
of whom were chroniclers. The last-mentioned author 
wrote a history so fanciful as to be entirely unworthy 
of credit; but it is, nevertheless, remarkable as con- 
taining ' The Story of King Arthur and the Knights of the 
Hound Tdble,^ from which so many poets have taken 
material for some of their most successful productions. 
The Normans were the first to introduce Romances, so 



240 HISTORY OF ENGLAND, 

called "because they were written in a language derived 
from the Eoman, or Latin tongue. They told of the 
wonderful adventures of heroes, in delivering the un- 
fortunate from giants, monsters, &c. 

INDUSTRY. — The invasion of a people like the 
Normans was certain to have a civilizing effect upon 
the Anglo-Saxons. We now find their manners under- 
going a gradual change for the better; and a certain 
degree of etiquette is introduced which had a very 
refining influence. The progress of industry exhibited 
itself in improvements in the construction of new 
roads and bridges. At this time, too, began the 
trade in wool, which, ere long, was to be the principal 
article of commerce. 

COINAGE. — There was little or no change in the 
money, except that silver halfpennies were occasionally 
used. These were of the value of about one shilling of 
our money. 



(1154,A.D.— 1485 A,D,) 



LITEEATUEE.— During this period we have the 
gradual amalgamation of the Saxons and the Normans. 
This change is very perceptible in the language of the 
country, which is now called Semi-Saxon. The real 
reason of this change is not to be found in the intro- 
duction of French words, but in the modifications 
which took place in the old Saxon. Thus the plural 
endings as and en now become es, the pronoun Mne is 
changed into Mm, and to is introduced before the infi- 
nitive. The best examples of these changes are to be 
found in the 'Brut ' of Layamon, a rhyming translation 
of a French poem relating to Britain. As the language 
lost more of its German inflections, and became simpler 
in its grammar, it has been called Old English and 
Middle English, to mark two stages in its advance 
towards the Modern English which we now speak and 
write. Old English seems to have been used in the 
thirteenth century, and the best illustration of it is the 
rhyming chronicle of Robert^of, Gloucester ; but there 



A CHAPTER ON ENGLISH PROGEESS, 241 

were many similar clironicles about tliis time. Middle 
English, was spoken for a much longer period than that 
last mentioned, and the authors are of much greater 
importance. Gower wrote well in the three languages 
then common in the country, viz., French, Latin and 
English. But all previous poets were now eclipsed by 
Geoffrey Chaucer (1328-1400), who has been styled 
the Father of English Poetry. His principal work is 
^The Canterbury Tales,' a series of stories supposed to be 
told by pilgrims, on their way from London to the 
shrine of Thomas a Becket, at Canterbury. The ' Pro- 
logue/ or opening poem, is very valuable, as containing 
animated descriptions of the various characters of the 
time. Sir John Mandeville wrote contemporaneously 
with Chaucer, and is the first English author on the 
subject of foreign travel. His work, like Gower's, was 
written in three languages. John Wycliffe, the ear- 
liest English reformer, is notable as having written 
the First Translation of the English Bible, which was not 
only the largest prose work that had yet appeared, but 
was of singular value on account of the important re^ 
suits which came of it. In Scotland, John Barbour 
had written a very readable poem about King Kobert- 
Bruce. 

ART. — The only art of any consequence was that dt 
architecture. The pointed arch, and other Gothic cha- 
racteristics hitherto in vogue, were somewhat altered 
by the introduction of the rounded arch, usually styled 
Norman. 

SCIENCE. — The sciences were as yet in their infancy, 
although there were earnest men like Eoger Bacon and 
Michael Scott, who were trying hard to get light. 
But these men were regarded as wizards ; and Bacon 
was imprisoned by ignorant priests, who thought he 
must have something to do with Satan. To Eoger 
Bacon we are indebted for the magnifying-glass. The 
students of the stars, in those days, looked up to the 
sky as to the book of fate ; and regarded the planets, 
not with intent to gain a knowledge of them, but to find 
out what influence they had, or were thought to have, 
on the lives and destinies of men. This so-called 



242 !IIST0KY OF ENGLAND. 

science was named Astrology, and became the parent of 
astronomy. In like manner, Alchemy preceded chemistry. 
It was the popular belief that, by means of certain 
chemical combinations, a stone might be made which 
would change the baser metals, iron and lead, into gold. 
The alchemists also endeavoured to discover an Elixir 
of Life, by the drinking of which men might live for 
ever. These wonderful things were never found out ; 
but in the search for them a knowledge was gained 
which was to prove invaluable. 

During this time, candles were substituted for 
torches; gunpowder was invented by Schwartz at 
Cologne (1340), and the first cannons were used by 
Edward III. at the Battle of Crecy (1346). 

TRADE and INDUSTRY. —As the Saxons and the 
Normans were gradually becoming one people, they 
began with singleness of purpose to advance the inter- 
ests of England. Trade was showing progress. France 
now found a market for her wines ; Eussia, for her 
furs ; the Netherlands, for woollen and linen goods ; 
while the far countries of the East sent gold, silk, and 
spices. England, on the other hand, exported wool, tin 
and lead, salmon, and sometimes, even slaves. Before 
the time of Eichard I., the Jews were the goldsmiths, 
jewellers, and bankers of the people; and letters of 
credit were used for the first time in the reign of John. 

The only manufacture of any consequence as yet, 
was the making of woollen goods at Worsted and Nor- 
wich ; but it does not seem to have thriven at first, for 
we find Edward III. inviting more Flemish weavers to 
settle in England, centuries after their predecessors had 
originally come to the country. The mining operations 
were of a very limited nature. The tin-mines of Cornwall 
had been wrought for a long time, and iron had been used 
in tolerable quantity ; but so long as the people lacked 
a sufficiency of fuel for smelting purposes, the progress 
must have been slow. Coal was discovered at New- 
castle in 1233 (in Scotland, earlier), but it was by no 
means a favourite ; for we read that when, in the four- 
teenth century, the London brewers tried the new fuel, 
iho smoke was found so disagreeable that an Act was 



A CHAPTER ON ENGLISH iP^dGEESB. 243 

passed forbidding the use of it. Those wlio had tried 
it, however, found it to do so well that they persevered 
in spite of the new law. The Government then declared 
that the burning of the new mineral would be con- 
sidered a capital crime; and it is on record that at 
least one man was executed for continuing the use of 
coal. At present, the Londoners burn more than seven 
millions of tons of coal annually. 

COINAGE. — In the reign of Edward III., gold nobles 
were introduced. These were of the value of six shil- 
lings and eight pence, and were considered to be really 
beautiful coins. 



THE LANCASTRIAN AND YORKIST PERIOD. 

(1369 A.D.— 1485 A.D.) 

LITERATURE.- — In consequence of the wars with 
France in the earlier portion of this period, and the 
civil strife of the later, the literary progress of England 
was slow. FoRTEScuE and Lyttletoe^, two lawyers of 
the time, wrote works on the subject of the English 
Constitution ; but the poets, in England at least, were 
scarcely worthy the name, being mere rhymsters who 
wrote on historical subjects. Of these, Occleve and 
Lydgate are best remembered, because they helped 
to modernise the language which belongs to Middle 
English. There were no rules for spelling, every one 
having an orthography to suit himself. The English 
Drama was now in its infancy. The clergy of the time 
taught their people the stories of the Bible by 23erform- 
ing them in the churches. These performances are called 
Miracle Plays. In the reign of Henry VI., Moral Plays 
took the place of the miracles. They were performed 
by men who personated qualities, such as Virtue and 
Vice. They were like the persons we read about in 
Bunyan's ^Pilgrim's Progress.' Plays of this kind 
were called allegorical. In Scotland the leading author 
was James I., who strove hard to advance learning 
among his subjects. During his imprisonment in 
Windsor Castle he became v,ery fond of Chaucer's 



244 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

works, and lias imitated Mm in his own manner of 
-writing. * The King^s QuTiair,^ or book, is his principal 
poem, and it describes the romantic story of his love. 
The universities of St. Andrews and Glasgow were 
founded during this period ; the former in 1411, and 
the latter in 1451. 

It is needless to add that the introduction of printing 
(alluded to below), gave an impulse to literature such 
as it had never yet received ; and it will be seen, when 
we come to discuss the next period, how rapidly the 
results of it began to manifest themselves. 

SCIENCE. — Little that is new has to be recorded of 
this time. Surgery seems to have been an unpopular 
study; for there was only one surgeon, with a few 
assistants, to attend to the wounded at the Battle of 
Agincourt. The study of the stars, however, seems 
to have advanced ; for we find Halley's comet first 
observed in ^England in 1456. This comet appeared 
when the Turks were carrying all before them, and 
were threatening to become the masters of Europe. It 
was regarded as an evil omen, and a prayer common at 
the time was, "Save us from the devil, the Turk, and 
the comet !" 

TRADE and INDUSTRY.--At the close of the Plan- 
tagenet period, the folly of Richard II. had done much 
to checJi the progress of commerce, and the wars of the 
succeeding dynasties had also an evil effect upon trade. 
But it did not stand still, notwithstanding these hin- 
drances. Villeinage (slavery) having been abolished, 
there were more persons interested than before. Wool 
was still the staple commodity ; but it had now become 
so excellent in quality as to rival the fine wools of 
Spain, and was therefore in greater demand than ever. 
To the exports must now be added guns and gun- 
powder; and to the imports, wines from Spain and 
Portugal. Among the most successful merchants were 
Cannyng and Whittington, who is well known in con- 
nection with his cat. Suffice it to say, that these men 
became very wealthy, and spent their money worthily 
in erecting fountains, in founding hospitals, and in con- 
tributing liberally to the charities of the time. 



A CHAPTER ON ENGLISH PROGBESS. 245 

The art of glass-making had become by this time 
well known ; and the improvements in the art of ship- 
building were important, the largest vessels being now 
about 900 tons burthen. But the art, of all arts the 
chief, was that of printing. This invention is variously 
ascribed to the Dutchman, Lawrence Coster, and to the 
German Gutenberg, of Mainz. However tha,t may be, 
the use of type was first introduced into England in 1474, 
by John Caxton, who set up a printing-press in West- 
minster, and produced the first book ever printed in 
this country. It was called ' Tlie Game and Flaye of 
the Chess.'' 

COINAGE.— The nobles coined in the reign of Ed- 
ward III. were increased in value to ten shillings, and 
were called rials ; and what had formerly been named 
nobles were now called angels. In the time of Edward VI, 
crowns and half-crowns were first coined. They were 
so called on account of the device of a crown stamped 
on similar coins in circulation on the continent. It is 
worthy of remark that, previous to this period, the 
money had been merely punched out of the solid metal, 
and had, therefore, a certain raggedness about the 
edges. In Elizabeth's time a new machine — the Mill 
and Screw — was invented, by which coins were made to 
have neatly- indented edges, as most of our silver coins 
now have. 



THE TUBOE PEEIOD. (1485 a.d.~1603 a.d.) 

LITERATURE.— As has been already hinted, the 
invention of printing was of invaluable service to the 
cause of learning and literature ; but there was now, 
also, a great revival in the study of Latin, Greek, and 
Hebrew. Numerous schools and colleges were being 
founded by Wolsey and others. The old monasteries 
fell in the time of Henry YIIL, and with them the 
schools so long attached to them. Students stood 
between the old ways of thought and the new, scarcely 
knowing which were better. It was a time of tran- 
sition. It is remarkable that during this period the 
ladies of England were more studiously inclined than 



246 HISTOBY OF ENGLAND. 

ever before or even since. Queen Mary and Queen 
Elizabeth knew the classical languages, and two or 
more modern ones; and the unfortunate Lady Jane 
Grey derived consolation in the hour of death from her 
Greek Testament. Such excellent examples made the 
ladies of the land, if only for fashion's sake, to study 
with diligence. 

The language is greatly indebted to Sir Thomas 
Wyatt and Thomas Howard, Earl of Surrey, for the 
grace and smoothness which, till now, it had lacked. 
The latter poet is notable as having been the first 
to introduce the English sonnet, a poem fourteen lines 
long, with peculiarities in the arrangement of the 
rhymes. For the first time also, blank verse was intro- 
duced by Surrey in his translation of a portion of 
"Virgil's ' ^neid.' This blank verse is so called because 
it has no rhymes. Within a comparatively short period 
the New Testament was translated by Tyndale, and 
the whole Bible was afterwards published by Miles 
CovERDALE. TMs last translation was rendered neces- 
sary because Wyclifie's version had become almost 
unreadable. Of the Scottish poets there were two 
who merit distinction; these were William Dunbar 
and Gavin Douglas, both ministers, the latter a bishop. 
The former wrote allegorical poems, and the latter 
first translated the whole of Virgil's great poem into 
English. 

Modern English is considered to have begun about 
the middle of the sixteenth century, and the most note- 
worthy fact in connection with its beginning is the 
rapid development of dramatic literature. The Miracle 
and the Moral Plays were over, and now began the 
real drama. The earliest tragedy was ' Gorhodiic,^ or 
^ Ferrex and Porrex' (1562), and was written by Sack- 
Ville ; the earliest comedy, ' Bal^Ji Boyster Doyster ' 
(1551), written by Udall; but, only fourteen years 
later, a much more amusing production followed, called 
^Gammer Gurton's Needle^' by John Still. This last 
brings out, very humorously, the fuss made about the 
loss of a needle — at that time a most rare and valuable 
instrument. Until then the dramatic authors were but 



A CHAPTER ON ENGLISH PROGRESS. 247 

as the faint stars of the morning hours, for ere long 

William Shakespeare rises like the sun in his glory, 

and eclipses them all. This illustrious poet was born 

at Stratford-on-Avon in 1564. He was part proprietor 

of one of the earliest theatres — the Globe, London; 

wrote thirty-seven plays, besides sonnets and other 

poems, and died at his birth-place in 1616. His poetry 

exhibits the deepest knowledge of human nature, and 

contains more wisdom than any other English book, 

the Bible alone excepted. Contemporary with 

Shakespeare was Christopher Marlowe, a young 

man who lived a dissolute life, but who, had he 

conducted himself otherwise, might have rivalled 

the great dramatist himself. As it is, he is second 

only, in point of merit. Among the allegorical poets 

Edmund Spenser stands first. His poem, called ' The 

Faerie Queen,' although for the most part written in 

modern English, contains hundreds of words which 

the author made to suit himself, and to give his work 

an ancient aspect. Each couplet consists of nine lines, 

eight of which have ten syllables in each ; while the 

last, called an Alexandrine, has twelve. This, with a 

peculiarity in the arrangement of the rhymes, is called 

the Spenserian Stanza. Among the other poets was 

the gallant and generous Sir Phillip Sydney, who, like 

Surrey, wrote ' Sonnets,' as also a prose romance called 

^Arcadia' He is best remembered for his kindness to 

the dying soldier at Zutphen. The notable prose 

writers were Sir Walter Kaleigh, Eichard Hooker, 

and Francis Bacon. The unfortunate Sir Walter was 

one of the wonders of the age. He was courtier, soldier, 

sailor, discoverer, colonizer, and literary man, by turns, 

and excelled in almost every case. His greatest work 

was ' The History of the World,' which he wrote while 

unjustly detained as a prisoner in the Tower by James I. 

Hooker wrote the ^Ecclesiastical Polity' — a book about 

the Church of England ; but Bacon, although he had 

now written his famous ' Essays,' did not produce his 

great book till the next period. 

ART. — The architecture of the time is known as 
Tudor, or Elizabethan, and is sometimes called the 



248 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

Florid style, on account of the elaborate ornamentation 
whicli was then the fashion. Music was now being 
cultivated,- and Tallis was the most notable composer. 
Painting, too, was "being patronised, for we find 
Hans Holbein, the German painter, at the court of 
Henry VIII. 

SCIENCE. — The progress in science was not very 
rapid, in England at least, at this period. In conse- 
quence, however, of the wonderful discoveries made by 
Galileo, the Italian philosopher, Astrology was to 
change its name, and to become a science indeed. 
Medicine, too, was making progress, for we find the 
royal doctors, headed by a medical minister named 
LiNACRE, forming themselves into a society or college 
in 1518. This was named the Royal College of 
Physicians, because the king granted them a charter. 
The object was to keep quacks from meddling with 
medical matters, and to prevent the use of other than 
wholesome drugs. 

TRADE. — In consequence of the decline of the feudal 
system, the character of the sovereigns, who were now 
nearly absolute, had a greater effect on the interests of 
the country than at any former time. Thus Henry VII. 
was a money-loving king, and, in order to fill his trea- 
sury, became one of the keenest merchants in the land. 
New commercial treaties were arranged, and trade 
became brisk. During this reign, obscure villages, such 
as Liverpool and Manchester, were beginning to give 
evidence of growth, and were becoming every year 
more important. In the matter of maritime discovery, 
Henry VII. made some effort to imitate Spain. Eng- 
land had narrowly escaped the honour of sending out 
Columbus ; but, perhaps, she thereby escaped that 
" curse of gold " which at length reduced Spain to a 
mean position among the nations of Europe. Henry 
sent out Sebastian Oaeot, who discovered the main- 
land of America in 1497, but, beyond the honour, there 
was no immediate gain. The character of Henry VIII. 
was exactly the reverse of that of his father, and yet 
even his extravagance was of advantage to trade. He 
scattered abroad the treasures to which he fell heir, 



A CHAPTER ON ENGLISH PROGRESS. 249 

and in this way did excellent service to business by 
the increased circulation of money. His love of finery, 
too, was imitated by his courtiers and by the wealthier 
classes among the people ; hence the finest cloths were 
imported, and the most skilful foreign workmen brought 
into the country. The natives regarded these with 
jealousy ; but, having an eye to the business of the 
future, they got laws passed prohibiting foreigners 
from employing other than English apprentices, so that 
their skill might at length become the property of the 
nation. The size and tonnage of vessels had now con- 
siderably increased, and merchants were thus enabled 
to trade with countries far distant from home. Com- 
mercial companies were got up ; some to work the 
Newfoundland fisheries, and others to bring to England 
the produce of Eussia — a country at that time scarcely 
better known than central Africa is now. Among the 
many methods of money -making, it is curious to note 
that the lending of money for interest was strictly 
forbidden, as it was deemed a direct violation of Divine 
law ; and in the reign of Edward YI., any person 
lending money for usury was liable, not only to tl^e 
forfeiture of his loan, but to be fined and imprisoned as 
for a crime. This law continued in force for twenty 
years ; 'but, although it was then repealed, the interest 
on money was limited to ten per cent. At this time, 
too, an old law, making it unlawful for foreign vessels 
to carry English goods, was repealed, and commerce 
was thereby greatly benefited. In Elizabeth's time 
there was developed a spirit of enterprise such as no 
other nation had exhibited. India being now regarded 
as the home of wealth, numerous efforts were made to 
discover the shortest possible route from England. 
Yasco di GrAMA had already found out the Cape route ; 
but it was believed for many a century afterwards 
that there was a yet shorter way round by the north 
of North America, and thence by the Pacific to China 
and India. This route it was the object of such men 
as Matiti^t Erobisher, and Sir John Davis to discover. 
They did not find it, however; but they gained vast 
stores of geographical knowledge, while their names 



250 HISTORY OF ENaLAND. 

will ever be associated with the places they visited. 
Sir Francis Drake was the first to sail round the world 
(1577), and Sir Thomas Cavendish goon afterwards did 
the same. Ealeigh had crossed the ocean, and had in 
vain endeavoured to found a colony in that part of 
America now known as Virginia. It was during 
Elizabeth's reign that a charter was granted to the 
East India Company, giving them the sole right to 
trade with Hindostan. 

AGRICULTURE, &c. — Great improvements were 
taking place in the tillage of the soil. Much of the 
land was under pasture ; and it is worthy of notice, as 
a contrast to the dear times in whi ch we live, that beef 
and mutton sold at a halfpenny per pound, and veal 
and pork at three-farthings ! Clover and hops were 
imported for the first time, and, in 1586, Baleigh intro- 
duced the potato. In the reign of Henry VIII. some 
of our principal fruit-trees were brought from Flanders, 
and planted in Kent — among these, plums, apricots, 
gooseberries, and currants ; and at the close of the 
sixteenth century roses, carnations, and gillyflowers 
were brought from France. 

MANUFACTURES.— The woollen goods of English 
manufacture could now compete with those of Flemish 
make, and exports of this kind were highly valued on 
the continent. Silk had been introduced, but was 
merely used in hand-knitting, and in the production of 
such articles as cauls (nets for the hair), laces, &c. In 
1589, Lee, a Cambridge student, invented the stocking- 
loom, by which the manufacture of silk stockings 
became an important branch of industry. Paper mills 
were first erected in Hertfordshire, about 1490, but the 
most important one was built at Dartford. The owner 
of this mill had a licence for " the sole gathering for 
ten years of all rags, &c., necessary for paper-making." 
Coach-making became a branch of English industry 
in 1564. It is recorded that " a coach was a strange 
monster in those days, and the sight of it put both 
horse and man to amazement." The iron trade, des- 
tined before long to be one of the most important, was 
as yet confined to the county of Sussex. There were 



A CHAPTER ON ENGLISH PROGRESS. 251 

iron districts in other parts of the country, hut their 
distance from London prevented their being exten- 
sively wrought. The mining operations in Sussex 
were of the simplest character; the fuel used in 
smelting was charcoal made from the oaks of the forest ; 
while the fan was driven by water-power. The guns 
made here were at first formed of pieces of metal 
strongly hooped together, but, in 1543, they were cast 
in a mould by Hogge, a master founder in Sussex. So 
very extensive had gun-making become, that during 
Elizabeth's reign cannon were exported in large 
numbers. The result was that England's enemies 
were found firing at her with guns made by herself. 
The foreign trade in these weapons had, therefore, to 
be forbidden. 

COINAGE.- — A gold coin worth two rials was made 
in the reign of Henry VIII., and was called a sovereign. 
At the same time, also, the testoon or shilling cam© 
into use. It was of the same value as our own, 



THE STUAET PERIOD TILL THE RESTORATION. 

(1603 A.D.— 1660 A.D.) 

LITERATURE.— At the commencement of this 
period Shakespeare and Raleigh were yet alive. The 
famous Bejt Jonson was the most important poet of the 
reign of James I. He had been student, bricklayer, 
soldier, and actor, and was now a play- writer; his 
principal comedy is ^ Every Man in His Humour.^ 
Two close friends, twin names in literature, were 
Beaumont and Fletcher. Together they composed 
very clever and sparkling plays. Philip Massinger, a 
poor man, who had a hard fight for bare existence, 
wrote a comedy entitled ' A New Way to Pay Old Debts' 
Other poets there were. Royalists and Puritans. Among 
the former may be named, Herrick, Carew, Suckling, 
and Lovelace, who are called lyric poets, because they 
wrote song-like poems. There were no very famous 
Puritan authors ; but there were religious poets, most 
of whose writings possess that queerness of illustration 



252 HISTORY OP ENaLAND. 

which has led to their being called metaphysical poets. 
Their odd fancies were called conceits. Their names 
were Quarles, Herbert, and Ceawshaw. In Scot- 
land, Drummond of Hawthornden was the most con- 
spicuous of the poetical writers. 

Of the prose authors, Johj^ Milton and Francis 
Bacon were undoubtedly the greatest. Of the former 
we shall soon have more to tell; meantime it is 
sufficient to record, that he wrote some telling pam- 
phlets against king-worship, and also in favour of the 
freedom of the press. Bacon now produced his greatest 
work, the ' Novum Organum,^ which is esteemed one of 
the wisest and most useful books ever written ; for, by 
the aid of his new system of induction, he put a lamp 
into the hands of students of science, which guided 
them to many useful inventions and discoveries. 
Jeremy Taylor, Joseph Hall, and Thomas Fuller were 
three . distinguished divines notable in literature as 
having written Religious Books. ' Tlie Authorized Version 
of the Bihle' was published under the patronage of 
James I., and in the same reign fly-sheets con1:aining 
news were occasionally printed and circulated. They 
were the forerunners of the newspapers of the present 



ART. — In architecture, the greatest name is that of 
Inigo Jones, who designed the banqueting-house at 
Whitehall. Painting was being more extensively 
patronized, especially during the reign of Charles I., 
who had Vandyke and Rubens, the great Flemish 
artists, at his court. The former was so successful in 
painting the portraits of the King and the Eoyal 
Family, that he found more work to do than he could 
well manage. Music, too, had made some progress, 
and Bull, Gibbons, and Bird were the principal com- 
posers. 

SCIENCE. — Perhaps the most wonderful scientific 
discovery of the time was that of the circulation of the 
blood, by William Harvey, a London doctor, and one 
of the lecturers in connection with the College of Phy- 
sicians. He had explained his discovery to his students 
in 1619, but did not let th© world know about it till 



A CHAPTER ON ENGLISH PROGRESS. 253 

1628. On the continent, many important discoveries 
were made. Kepler had fonnd out the laws that gnided 
the planets in their motion round the sun; Snellins, 
the laws of the refraction of light ; Huygens, the way 
of applying Galileo's discovery of the pendulum to the 
art of clock-making ; and Guericke had invented the 
air-pump. 

TRADE. — Compared with the energy displayed 
during the reign of Elizabeth, the progress now made 
was not great. There were various ways of accounting 
for this. In consequence of the granting of monopolies, 
much business was kept in the hands of a few indi- 
viduals; then England was at war with Spain and 
Holland — countries with which there had hitherto 
been a good trade. The civil war had much to do 
with it, as had also the strong rivalry of the Dutch, 
even when there was amity between our nation and 
theirs. The old ill will to interest returned, and the old 
ten per cent, was reduced first to eight, and afterwards 
to six per cent. To the dishonesty of Charles I. we are 
indebted for the introduction of banking. Hitherto 
the merchants had kept their savings in the Mint (the 
place where the money is coined) ; but Charles, being 
needy, seized upon their store, saying he only wished 
the loan of it. After this, business men would trust 
the Mint no longer ; but entrusted their gains to the 
goldsmiths, who gave them interest for the use of the 
money. Indirectly, the events that led to the civil 
war were of great service to commerce, for they were 
the cause of the planting of those colonies in America, 
which have since proved so valuable to the trade of this 
country. Letters were conveyed on horseback, and a 
letter posted in London would reach Edinburgh in 
rather more than three days. 

MANUFACTURES.— It was during the earlier por- 
tion of this period that Manchester rose into impor- 
tance in connection with cotton. A silk mill had been 
erected at Derby (1620), and a tapestry factory at 
Mortlake. Ship -building was progressing, though it is 
curious to note that Glasgow, now so celebrated for the 
number and magnificence of the vessels she has built, 



254 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

owned at this time a fleet of only twelve ships; and 
the Clyde was so shallow, that no ship of any size 
could approach nearer than fourteen miles from the 
town. Of the coal and iron business some interesting 
facts may be stated. No effort had been made to use 
coal for smelting purposes till the want of charcoal 
began to make itself felt. Now, since wood was still 
the fuel of the country, the people of the metropolis 
became alarmed lest the Sussex iron-smelters should 
use too much of it. The number of ironworks was 
therefore reduced, and immediately afterwards the 
smelters sought other iron-yielding districts, where 
there was also abundance of timber, as, for example, in 
South Wales. It was not till 1620 that any success 
attended the efforts made to utilise the coal. Proper 
appliances appear to have been contrived in that year 
by Dud Dudley, natural son of the Earl of Dudley. 
His works were at Cradley in Staffordshire, and he 
was soon able to turn out more smelted iron a week 
than those who still used the charcoal. Never did a 
man fight so doggedly as he through difficulties, perse- 
cutions, and misfortunes innumerable. His neigh- 
bours were jealous of him ; the mob hated him ; the 
floods demolished his works ; his rivals worried him 
with lawsuits ; and, to crown all, the civil war broke 
out. This put an end to the coal-smelting for a time, 
and it almost put an end to the entire iron trade of the 
country; for during the Commonwealth it was at a 
standstill. Cromwell himself tried to get Dudley's 
secret of coal-smelting from him ; but he would not 
divulge it to a Puritan. After the Restoration Dudley 
published a book, with the intention of revealing his 
secret ; but the language in which it was written was 
so mysterious that it hid the very thing it was in- 
tended to explain ; and hence the whole business had to 
be re-discovered. 

COINAGE. — Copper-farthings were issued for the 
first time during the reign of James I., and were the 
first copper coins since the styca. Charles I. issued 
two large and splendid silver coins of the value of ten 
shillings and twenty shillings respectively ; but they 



A CHAPTER ON ENGLISH PROaRESS. 255 

were too heavy to remain long in use. In the same 
reign the guinea was introduced. It was so called 
because the gold of which it was made came from 
Guinea, in Africa. Its value at that time was only 
twenty shillings. During the Commonwealth there 
was no change of importance. 

THE STUART PERIOD, PROM THE RESTORATION TILL 
THE REVOLUTION. (1660 a.d.— 1688 a.d.) 

LITERATURE.— The enforced goodness which pre- 
vailed during the Commonwealth was succeeded by a 
period of wild dissipation and wickedness. The abo- 
minations of the age are stamped upon the literature. 
If authors wished to live, they must write to suit the 
depraved tastes of the people. The stage was now 
very different from that of the Tudor time. Hitherto, 
female parts had been played by men ; they were now 
performed by women. The scenery, hitherto plain and 
paltry, gave place to that which was fairly painted 
and pleasant to look upon. But, while these were 
improvements, the plays and the acting of them were 
vile in the extreme. Many of the dramatic authors 
were, doubtless, very clever, and their plays sparkle 
with wit and humour ; but they are now unreadable 
in decent society. The laureate of the period was 
John Dryden", who wished to write differently from 
what the age demanded, but dared not. Then there 
were Eochester, Wycherley, and Congreve, all dra- 
matists, and all panderers to the fashionable sins. 
But out from amongst this abomination, there rose a 
poem, pure, holy, and beautiful. It was the ' Paradise 
Lost ' of the blind old Puritan — John Milton. This is 
the grandest epic in our language. Now it was that 
Butler wrote his quaint and humorous poem called 
' Hudihras,' in which he makes fun of the sad-faced 
Eound-heads. Among the prose writers we have 
BuNYAN, notable for his ''Pilgrim's Progress f Locke, for 
his famous ' Essay on the Human Understanding ; Sir Isaac 
Newton, for his splendid^ scientific works ; and Edward 
Hyde, Earl of Clarendon, for his ^ History of tlie BehelUon,^ 

R 



256 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

ART.— Christopher Wren was the great architect of 
the time. Not only did he design St. Paul's Cathedral, 
in London, but he may be said to have been the architect 
of London itself. The city had been almost entirely 
destroyed by the great fire in 1666, and when it was 
rebuilt, the plans were made by Wren. Painting, 
which had not thriven in Puritan times, revived with 
the Eestoration of Charles II. Sir Peter Lely and 
Sir Godfrey Kneller were the two most fa'mous por- 
trait painters. Music had also suffered a severe check 
during the Commonwealth ; but when it was over, 
there was a great revival in the art, and ere long it 
became more popular in England than it had ever been 
before, or has been since, until now. The ' National 
Anthem ' was the production of this time ; and Purcell 
Was the greatest composer. 

SCIENCE. — This was the age when the steam-engine 
was to be invented and utilized. The first to invent 
one in this country was the Marquis of Worcester. 
One day he saw a tight-fitting kettle-lid blown off by 
steam, and rightly imagined that the force which could 
blow off a lid could be turned to some good use. The 
engine he invented may be briefly explained thus : — 
He had a boiler of water placed on a -fire, and from it a 
tube leading into a cylinder, or long iron drum, inside 
of which a piston was to move up and down. The 
steam was led through the tube to the lower part of 
the cylinder, and by its pressure caused the piston to 
rise to the top. But it could not get down again until 
the steam beneath had been removed. A stop-cock was 
therefore opened, and it escaped, while at the same 
moment a jet of steam was introduced above the piston 
to make its descent more rapid. This second volume of 
steam had to be let out by a stop-cock placed above, 
before the piston would rise again. The continual 
opening and shutting of these stop-cocks had to be per- 
formed by the hand, and so, though the contrivance 
was ingenious, it was but a slow affair, and incapable 
of doing much important work. Towards the close of 
this period, Sir Isaac Newton discovered the Laws of 
Crravitation. Astronomy was advancing, and in 1671, 



A CHAPTER ON ENGLISH PROGRESS, 257 

tlie now world-famous Observatory was erected at 
Greenwich. 

COMMERCE, &C.— It is marvellous to consider how 
the commerce of England was increased at this time. 
The persecutions in France and in Holland had the 
effect of driving skilled workmen over to this country, 
which accordingly reaped the full advantage of their 
skill. But there were persecutions in England itself, 
and here the hand of Providence is visible. In other 
countries, mischief has come upon trade and commerce, 
by the enforced exile of the artizans ; but England 
reaped the benefit, and when her own artizans were 
exiled in a similar way, they became, as we. have seen, 
the founders of colonies which have been a gain and 
not a loss to the mother country. There were other 
causes of prosperity. The six per cent, interest was 
still continued ; the monopolies were being done away 
with ; and the postage of letters had become cheaper than 
before. A letter could now be sent a distance of eighty 
miles for twopence. The shipping was double what it 
had been during the reign of Elizabeth ; the revenue 
was trebled, and the merchants were becoming men of 
wealth. The tea-trade was started, but only some 
two thousand pounds were consumed during the first 
six years. As wealth increased, the people desired to 
see more of the country than hitherto, and hence stage- 
coaches were placed on the highways to meet the 
want. In cities, too, it became necessary to have 
vehicles for hire ; thus hackney-coaches came into use, 
although the streets were so badly paved that sedan- 
chairs, borne by men, were far more comfortable. 

MANUFACTURES.— Up to the year 1667, woollen 
goods, though still highly valued, had to be sent to 
the continent to be dyed; for the English chemists had 
not as yet discovered the proper method. At this 
time, the muslins, chintzes, and calicoes, sent home by 
the East India Company, became the fashion in England, 
insomuch that woollen and other manufactures were 
left in the background. In these circumstances it was 
deemed expedient to pass an Act limiting the trade in 
these foreign goods ; but merchants saw that these 



258 HISTOEY OF ENaLAND* 

cotton goods had taken well, and so began to imitate 
them at home. Calico-printing was first started in 
London. Patents were now granted for the making 
of " blue paper for sugar-makers," and for paper " as 
white as anything the French or Dutch can produce." 
Sugar-refining was beginning to be associated with 
Bristol. In 1319, sugar had been used for the first 
time, honey having previously served the same pur- 
pose. In 1676, the British planters of the Barbadoes 
had a fleet of four hundred vessels engaged in bringing 
sugar to England. Coal was now more extensively 
in use as fuel for domestic purposes ; but the iron busi- 
ness was very poor, four -fifths of the entire quantity 
of the metal required having been imported from 
Sweden. 

COINAGE. — Copper halfpennies were coined by 
Charles II., though copper pennies were not made till 
the reign of George III. It was at this time that the 
figure of Britannia was first stamped on English money. 

FROM THE REVOLUTION TILL THE DEATH OP GEORGE U, 

(1688 A.D.— 1760 A.D.) 

LITERATURE. — -In consequence of the Eevolution, 
every department of labour received an impulse which 
made progress leap forward with rapid strides. A 
feeling of freedom and freshness pervades the lite- 
rature; for it is now no longer necessary to pander 
to depraved tastes in order to obtain a living. The 
authors were more manly and independent than here- 
tofore. Alexander Pope was the greatest poet of his 
day. He was weakly in constitution, and therefore, 
perhaps, waspish in temper. His chief works were 
' The Bape of the Loch ' and a ' Translation of Homer's 
Iliad'' (Greek) into English verse. Two Scottish poets 
of repute were James Thomson and Allan Eamsay, the 
former of whom wrote ' The Seasons,'' and the latter 
' The Gentle Shepherd,^ a pastoral drama (one referring 
to shepherd life). To this period we are indebted for 
the first daily newspaper, the first novel, the first maga- 
zine, and the first English dictionary. ' The Daily 



A CHAPTER ON EN^LIgfl PBOaBESS. 25 D 

CoUrant* (London, 1709) was tlie first newspaper of 
its kind. The earliest novel of any consequence was 

* Bohinson Crusoe,'' written by Daniel Defoe in 1719. 
Many other writers of fiction follow. Among them 
were Kichardson, author of * Pamela;' Fielding, of 

* Tom Jones ;' and Smollet, of ' Peregrine PicMe,'' &c. 
Early in the eighteenth century, a small literary paper, 
called ' The Tatler,^ made its appearance. It was under 
the management of Sir Eichard Steele, an accom- 
plished and sprightly Irishman. The most note- 
worthy contributor was Joseph Addison, who was 
remarkable for the purity and beauty of his English. 
Other publications — ' The Spectator,' &c. — followed, but 
it was not till 1731 that Cave started the first real 
magazine. It was called * The Gentleman's Magazine.^ 
In 1755, Dr. Samuel Johnson published the first Eng- 
lish dictionary, a ponderous volume, full of erudition, 
but neither so easy to understand, nor so accurate in 
its etymology, as the sixpenny dictionary of our own 
day. ' Gulliver's Travels,' by Dean Soviet, and ' Tristram 
Shandy,' by Laurence Sterne, are both works of fiction, 
but have a political and philosophical significance which 
the ordinary reader may fail to observe. 

ARTS. — In architecture, it may be noted, that St. 
Paul's Cathedral, London, designed by Wren, was now 
completed after thirty-seven years of labour and an 
expenditure of 1,000,000Z. Music. — There were two 
great composers at the beginning of the eighteenth 
century. These were Handel, a German, resident in 
England, and , Dr. Arne. The former is known for his 
grand oratorios, which, though unpopular at first, 
have become great favourites with the people; th© 
latter, perhaps, is best known as the composer of ' Mule 
Britannia.' Painting. — The artists of the time are 
nearly all English, and towards the close of the 
period. The English School of Painting rises into dis- 
tinction. The painters were principally employed in 
painting pictures on walls and ceilings. Of this class 
Sir James Thornhill was the chief. But William 
Hogarth was the genius of the time. He did for his 
age what Chaucer did for the time in which he lived, 



260 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

except that Hogarth _ accomplished with the brush and 
the graving tool what Chaucer did with his pen ; in 
other words, he painted and engraved pictures which 
reveal the manners and customs of the period. 
. SCIENCE. — In 1721, inoculation was introduced into 
England by Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, who had 
seen it successfully adopted in the East. It had been 
discovered that if a little matter were taken, after the 
eighth day, from a jDerson suffering from small-pox, and 
were pricked into the skin of a healthy person, the 
latter would take the disease, but in so mild a form as 
not to endanger life. Now, the ravages of this disease 
had been so frightful, that, after a little, this new 
protection was gladly adopted. It had only one draw- 
back ; inoculated people suffering from small-pox were 
safe themselves, but they could communicate the con- 
tagion to uninoculated "persons, to whom the result 
might be fatal. In geographical science, very rapid 
progress was made, in consequence of the discoveries 
of such men as Cook, Berkeley, Bruce, and Park, all 
of whom contributed information which was of great 
value to other sciences, such as botany and astronomy. 
On the continent, great experiments had been made in 
connection with electricity ; but the first invention 
making it useful to man, was that of the lightning- 
rod, by Dr. Franklin, in 1760. This rod was to 
protect buildings from being struck by lightning, 
the electricity being conducted into the earth, by the 
greater attractive power of the metal used in making 
it. It was during this period that the thermometers of 
Fahrenheit and Keaumur, were invented. The former 
has been adopted in England, the latter in France and 
other countries. 

COMMERCE.— Trade felt the same impulse to which 
we have alluded as having sprung from the Eevo- 
lution ; and, by the union of England and Scotland, 
the commerce of both countries was much improved. 
Greatly to the disgust and annoyance of the Goldsmith 
Bankers, a Scot, named Paterson, established the Bank 
of England in 1694. It speedily became the popular 
bank, and it now guides all the other banks of the 



A CHAPTER ON ENGLISH PROaRESB. 261 

country. For the convenience of trade, canals now 
"began to be made. The Earl of Bridgewater's Canal, in 
Lancashire, in 1758, was the first ever made in Eng- 
land. For the guidance of vessels approaching dan- 
gerous parts of our coasts, lighthouses were erected. 
The first Eddystone lighthouse — soon after destroyed — 
was built in 1696. The failure of the South Sea 
scheme and multitudes of similar companies proved 
very, disastrous to thousands of merchants who had 
been too keen in the " race for riches." The commerce 
suffered for a little, and men of business were taught 
to be more careful and less credulous than they, had 
hitherto been 

MANUFACTURES AND INVENTIONS.— Societies 
were now formed for the encouragement of industry, 
and every effort was made to facilitate progress. The 
most noteworthy advance took place in the manufacture 
of silk in 1718. Before this, "thrown silk" (silk formed 
into threads) had been made in Italy, and in this state 
it was brought to England. It was considered that 
this manufacture had not a chance of success, till the 
English could " throw " silk for themselves ; so a man 
named Johjt Lombe went to Italy in 1715, and, over- 
coming many difficulties, he managed, in the guise of 
a common labourer, to get access to one of the mills. 
Here he kept a keen watch on every part of the process, 
and drew pla'ns of the machinery when he got home at 
night. At last, however, the Italians found out what 
he was doing, and he had to flee for his life. But he 
had won this secret, and when he got home to Derby, 
he set up a machine by which " thrown silk " could 
easily be made. The cotton manufactures were gaining 
ground. The spinning of the cotton into thread was 
as yet a very slow process, every thread having to be 
spun between finger and thumb. In weaving, again, 
the shuttle required the use of both hands ; the one, 
to send it across the web; and the other, to send it 
back again. In 1733, John Kay invented the fly- 
shuttle, by means of which much time was saved. The 
shuttle could now be driven forwards and backwards 
by a single jerk of the hand; but the weavers, who 



Lelieved in tlie old slow way, broke into tlie inventor'^ 
lionse, destroyed his loom, and would have killed him- 
self, had he not managed to escape to Paris, where he 
afterwards died in poverty. His fly-shiittle soon came 
into general nse, hut it wove so rapidly, that the hand- 
spinners could not supply the weavers with enough of 
thread, and hence they were often kept idle. It will 
soon be seen that ere long they would have little excuse 
for idleness. The use of coal for smelting purposes 
now became imperative. A quaker, named Abraham 
Darby, made considerable use of coal in his iron 
furnaces, in the year 1713; and his example was 
speedily followed all over the country. Darby did for 
pot-making and other hollow castings what Lombe did 
for silk-throwing. He went over to Holland, where 
the work was secretly conducted; and by dint of 
shrewdness and perseverance managed to discover the 
method which has ever since been in use. Type- 
casting also took its place among the industries of the 
time. The steam-engine of the Marquis of Worcester 
being of little service, it was improved u]3on by Savery, 
a miner, in 1698, who rendered it capable of pumping 
water out of coal-pits. A still greater improvement 
was effected by Newcomen, a blacksmith, in 1705. It 
is well known that the atmosphere has a pressure of 
from 12 to 15 lbs. on the square inch. Newcomen 
took advantage of this fact, and made his atmospheric 
engine. But before the air could drive down the piston, 
the steam had to be got out from beneath it. This 
was effected by injecting cold water into the cylinder, 
and thereby condensing the steam (turning it into 
water). This caused the cylinder to be alternately 
heated and cooled, a plan which required time ; and 
so, although the new engine was able to pump better 
than Worcester's or Savery's, it was but slow compared 
with the speed it was yet to attain. 

COINAGE. — There was no change in the coinage, 
except that, while Sir Isaac Newton was Master of the 
Mint, the money was better made than formerly. 



A CHAPTER ON ENGLISH PROaRESS. 263 



THE REIGN OP GEORGE III. (1760 a.d.-~1820 a.d.) 

LITERATURE. — As the printing press becomes 
more capable of performing work, the great authors 
crowd upon each other to such an extent that it becomes 
difficult to mention the names which it will be of most 
benefit to remember. Perhaps the most useful book 
of the time was Dr. Adam Smith's ' Wealth of Nations.^ 
In it, many wise counsels were given as to the right 
method of conducting the commerce of a country ; and 
it also showed the necessity for Free Trade, that is. 
having no restrictions — such as duties — on the exports 
or imports of the nation. Dr. Smith lived to see the 
government learn the lessons he had taught. This 
period is remarkable for the number of its great his- 
torians. Hume wrote his ' History of England ;' Egbert- 
son, his * History of Charles F.,' &c. ; and Gibbon, his 
' Decline and Fall of the Homan Empire.'' Goldsmith 
penned * The Vicar of Wakefield,' one of the most 
charming novels ever written, and wrote also a most 
excellent comedy, ' She Stools to Conquer.' These, to- 
gether with his poetical works, make him one of the 
most noted men of his time. William Cowper, towards 
the close of the eighteenth century, wrote his ' Tash^'' 
a didactic poem (one fitted to teach or instruct). The 
greatest poet was Egbert Burns, the lyric poet of 
Scotland. He was an Ayrshire ploughman; but 
though of low degree, he ^ expressed the emotions of 
the human heart so well that his name will be ever 
dear to his countrymen, in whatever region of the 
globe their lot may be cast. He was born in 1759, 
and died in 1796. Chief among the essayists of the 
time, was Edmund Burke, who now wrote his splendid 
* Essay on the Sublime and Beautifid.' 

ART. — At the commencement of this period the 
fashionable style of Architecture was after the manner 
of Italian villas — very pretty to look at, but not at all 
suitable for the climate of this country. The toy-like 
and uncomfortable dwellings now erected soon gave 
place to the more substantial and more comfortable 



264 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

iiouses of our own time. Painting. — Tlie painters had 
by tliis time become so mimeroiis and so successful that 
they clubbed together in 1768, received a royal charter, 
and, under the presidency " of Sir Joshua Eeynolds, 
started the Royal Academy for the encouragement of 
art. Eeynolds was famous as a portrait-painter; Sir 
Benjamin West as a historical painter; and Gains- 
borough as a landscape painter. There was a great de- 
mand for copies of the works of great artists, and hence 
engraving began to be practised more extensively than 
hitherto. Bewick, the illustrator of a ' History of Bri- 
tish Birds,' was one of the most successful engravers. 
Sculpture, which, till now, had been almost exclusively 
in the hands of foreign artists, was to be carried on 
henceforward by native talent. Flaxman was the best- 
known sculptor of this time. Pottery made great pro- 
gress. This was owing principally to the genius of 
JosiAH Wedgewood, wlio introduced the art of painting 
on earthenware, and who was also instrumental in chang- 
ing the homely fashion of our more common dishes for 
the more elegant designs of ancient Greece and Rome. 
Music. — Handel's stately oratorios were becoming more 
popular, while music-clubs and concert-giving were the 
order of the day. The great composers besides Handel 
were Arnold and Mornington. English Opera, which 
has never thriven, was now originated. 

SCIENCE. — In Medical Science the discovery was 
made by Dr. Jenner, in 1795, that farm servants, 
who caught infection from sores on the udder of a cow, 
though they did suifer slightly, were safe from the 
attacks of small-pox. Vaccination (from vacca, a cow) 
was the result ; and it was found that, while vaccine 
matter taken direct from .the cow had the effect desired 
when pricked into the skin of a healthy person, the 
matter taken from a person thus vaccinated would be 
quite as useful. So slight are the usual effects of vac- 
cination that infants can easily endure them. Che- 
mistry. — Henry Cavendish a wealthy member of a noble 
family, gave himself up heart and soul to the study of 
chemistry. He discovered that hydrogen was the 
lightest gas, and that water was composed of hydrogen 



A CHAPTER ON ENaLISH PEOaEESS. 265 

And oxygen. Tlie former of tliese discoveries led to 
various experiments in balloon-travelling. Astronomy. 
—John Herschel was a German music-master, wlio 
came to England to teach his art ; but he loved science 
better than art. He made a telescope by which he 
discovered new planets, and ere long became so notable 
as to be employed as astronomer by George III., who 
afterwards made him Sir John Herschel. 

COMMERCE.— During the earlier portion of the 
reign, commerce was considerably injured in conse- 
quence of the American war. . After peace had been 
proclaimed (1782), the loss was happily more than 
covered by the rapid increase of trade which suc- 
ceeded ; for, during the following ten years, the busi- 
ness with the Colonies was nearly doubled, as was also 
the number of vessels employed in the traffic. But the 
French war, which took place towards the close of this 
reign, was a sad blow to this prosperous state of 
things; and it is wonderful that British commerce 
was able to survive it. It was Napoleon's object to 
ruin our trade, 'and he very nearly succeeded. Not 
France alone, but every European nation which had 
hitherto done business with England, was ordered by 
the conqueror to give up the connection. The result 
was so ruinous, that, if the Government had not helped 
the merchants, our commercial prosperity would have 
become a thing of the past. But " the darkest hour 
often precedes the dawn." When peace was pro- 
claimed, the demand for British produce was so tre- 
mendous, that the disheartened merchants Avere 
cheered ; and henceforward " the tide led on to 
fortune." 

MANUFACTURES AND INVENTIONS.— -No period 
in the .previous history of the kingdom had been so 
fruitful in invention as this ; and the discoveries made 
were more useful than those of any former time in the 
history of the world. The Cotton manufacture received 
incalculable benefits from the ingenuity of four men. 
As we have seen, thread was wanted in sufficient quan- 
tity to keep the weavers going." In 1767, Hargreaves, 
a weaver, invented a machino which could spin thread 



266 HlSTOnY OF SNG^LAND. 

very rapidly. He called it the Spinning Jenny, otit of 
compliment to his wife, whose wheel had first suggested 
to him the idea of his new machinery. Arkwright, 
once a Preston barber, contrived a machine in 1769 
which could card the cotton so as to produce threads of 
different quality. The invention was called the Water- 
frame Throstle. Crompton, in 1775, combined the two 
machines — Hargreaves' and Arkwright's — so that card- 
ing and spinning could go on together. The new 
device was called the Spinning Mule. In 1787 De. 
Cartwright, an ingenious clergyman, was able to make 
a machine which was capable of performing the whole 
process of weaving. This was called the Power-loom. 
Now, therefore, we have machinery that will card, 
spin, or weave; and, within a very few years, the 
steam-engine will cause it to work so rapidly that 
liand-labour will go out of fashion. It was the pro- 
spect of such an issue that made the spinners and 
weavers so vicious against these inventors; for, with 
the exception of Arkwright, all of them suffered severely 
for their pains. The generations of the future were to 
Ije the great gainers. In 1769 the value of the cotton 
manufactures did not exceed 200,000Z. a-year ; in 1824 
it had risen to more than 33,000,000Z. James Watt, a 
Glasgow mechanic, perfected the steam-engine in 1769. 
He had got a model of one of Newcomen's engines to 
repair, and soon saw that the heating and cooling of 
the cylinder would never do, if the piston was to work 
with speed. In process of time he invented the Con- 
denser, in which the steam could be condensed outside 
of the cylinder, which would thus remain without 
change of temperature. After this, there was nothing 
too difficult for the steam-engine to accomplish, where 
mere force was necessary. To quote a well-known 
writer, " The steam-engine pumps water, drives spin- 
dles, threshes corn, prints books, hammers iron, ploughs 
land, saws timber, drives piles, impels ships, works 
railways, excavates docks ; and, in a word, exerts an 
almost unbounded supremacy over i; materials which 
enter into the daily use of mankind,^ for clothing, for 
labour, for defence, for household purposes^ for Iogo- 



A. CHAPTER ON ENGLISH PEOGRESS, 267 

motion, for food, or for instruction." Less than forty 
years afterwards, Watt's engine was used for the pro- 
pulsion of vessels. The first Steamboat seems to have 
been the Charlotte Dundas, the contrivance of William 
Symington, in 1802. In 1807 a man named Fulton 
built a steamer (on specifications drawn up by Syming- 
ton), which plied successfully between New York and 
Albany, on the Hudson Eiver. The first really useful 
steamer in Britain was the Comet, which was designed 
by Henry Bell, an Helensburgh innkeeper, in 1811. 
This vessel plied on the Clyde, between Glasgow and 
Greenock. Soon a,fter, Napier, of Glasgow, constructed 
marine engines which would work well in the stormiest 
weather, and hence seagoing steamers began to be built. 
Coal was now being produced in greater quantity, and 
Gas-making was added to the industries of the country. 
The curious discovery had been made by Murdoch, of 
Cornwall, in 1792, that the inflammable gas known to 
exist in coal could be used for illuminating, instead of 
candles. When prejudices had been got over, coal-gas 
came into general use. But the gas existing in coal-pits 
was the constant cause of disaster, as explosions fre- 
quently took place when the flame of the collier's lamp 
set fire to it. This was to be in a great measure 
prevented by the use of the Safety-lamp, invented by 
Sir Humphry Davy in 1816. It remains to be recorded 
that Lithography was invented at Paris in 1796, and 
Stereotyping, in Germany, in 1797. 

COINAGE. — Copper pennies were coined for the first 
time during this reign. The silver money was much 
neglected, being worn so smooth that both image and 
superscription had become almost invisible. 

FROM 1820 TILL THE PRESENT TIME. 

LITERATURE. — The authors are now so numerous 
that it is necessary to classify them. It will be con- 
venient, therefore, to arrange them in the following 
order : Poets, Novelists, Dramatists, Critics, Historians, 
and writers on other subjects than those previously 
indicated. I. Poets. — First in order of time comes Sm 



268 HISTORY OF^ ENGLAND, 

Walter Scott, whose stories in verse are fresh and 
invigorating as a sea-breeze. The best-known poems 
are ' The Lady of the Lake^' ^ Marmion,' and * The Lay 
of the Last MinstreV Next we have Wordswokth, 
Coleridge and Southey, usually called The Lake Poets, 
because they resided near each other at the Cumber- 
land lakes. Wordsworth's great poem was ' Tlie Excur- 
sion f Coleridge is best known as the author of ' The 
Ancient Mariner;^ and Southey, though he wrote an 
epic, is better remembered as having written such 
poems as ' Mary, the Maid of the Inn,' ' Lord William,' &g. 
Great, however, as these poets were, they do not take 
so high a position in literature as Lord Byron^, whose 
narrative poems are the finest productions of the 
century. Among his numerous works, ' Ghilde Harold ' 
may be named as one of the best. Contemporary with 
Byron was the Irish poet Moore, who, though he never 
visited the far East, wrote an excellent oriental poem 
entitled ' Lalla HooMi.' His most popular work was his 
* Lish Melodies.' Thomas Campbell, a poet belonging to 
Glasgow, is well remembered as the author of 'TAe 
Battle of the Baltic,' ' Ye Mariners of England,' &c., though 
his ' Pleasures of Hope ' and ' Gertrude of Wyoming ' are, 
both of them, highly meritorious poems of a more 
ambitious kind. Percy Bysshe Shelley and John" Keats 
were poets whose wealth of imagery has never been 
surpassed. The ' Queen Mah ' of the former, and the 
' Endymion ' of the latter, afford excellent illustrations of 
their respective styles. Mrs. Felicia Hemans was one of 
the most noteworthy among the lady poets ; her '■Better 
Land ' is well known to young people. Coming nearer 
to our own time, the greatest poet is, undoubtedly, 
Alfred Tennyson", the Poet-Laureate. He writes with 
great power, and in the most expressive English. His 
principal poems, — ' Maud,' ' The Princess,^ those regard- 
ing the Arthurian legends, and ''Enoch Arden,' are very 
popular. Mr. Robert Browning and Mrs. E. Barrett 
Browning are the most remarkable poets, after Tennyson. 
The humorous writer of greatest repute was the kind 
and genial Tom Hood, whose ^Bridge of Sighs' and 
^ Bong of the Shirt^ are well remembered. IL Novelist^, 



A CHAPTER ON ENGLISH PROGRESS, 269 

— The most powerful novelist of tlie century was 
Walter Scott, whose admirahle series of ' Waverley 
Novels ' will continue to be read with eagerness, long 
after the thousand and one yellow-Tboarded novels of 
our own time shall have been consigned to the oblivion 
they deserve. Among the earlier lady-novelists of re- 
pute were Miss Austin and Miss Edgeworth, whose 
works were intended more for instruction than amuse- 
ment. In our time, Dickens and Thackeray occupy 
the front rank, and next to them come Charlotte 
Bronte, Miss Evans (George Eliot), Charles Kingsley, 
Charles Lever, Anthony Trollope, Wilkie Collins, 
and BuLWER Lytton, who was perhaps the finest 
writer of them all. He died in January, 1873. 
III. Dramatists. — In tragedy, the most successful author 
was Sheridan Knowles ; in comedy, Douglas Jerrold, 
EoBERTsoN, and Tom Taylor; and Bulwer Lytton 
distinguished himself also by the production of such 
dramas as ' Biclielieu,^ ' The Lady of Lyons,' &g. IV. 
Critics. — Reviews had, very early in the present cen- 
tury, begun to exercise a healthy supervision in regard 
to literature. The writers of the period were almost 
innumerable, and the public required to be guided as 
to what was worth reading and what was not. Greatest 
among these guides were Lord Jeffrey, Hazlitt, Cole- 
EiDGE, and De Quincey. V. Historians. — The best writers 
of English History, during this period, were Lord 
Macaulay and J. A. Feoude ; of Continental History, Sir 
Archibald Alison and Hallam ; and of Greek History, 
Thirlwall and Grote. There vet remain to be men- 
tioned the names of authors who have excelled in other 
departments of literature : thus. Dr. Thomas Chalmers, 
in Theology; Thomas Carlyle, in Philosophy; John 
Stuart Mill, in Political Economy; G. H. Lewes and 
EoRSTER, in Biography ; Hugh Miller, in Geology ; John 
EusKiN, in the literature of Architecture and Painting. 
The Newspaper Press has now an immense influence 
on all matters of public importance, and the rapidity 
with which news can be transmitted and printed con- 
stitutes one of the wonders of our day. In contrast to 
the slow-going, creaking old press of Caxton's time, 



270 HISTORY OF ENaLAND» 

we have smart machines, driven by sjteam, whicli can 
print twenty thousand copies of a newspaper in an 
hour's time. 

ARTS. — In architecture there is, during the present 
time, a great want of originality of design. Many 
splendid buildings are being erected, but they are 
principally fashioned after styles in vogue long ago. 
Sir Gilbert Scott is one of the greatest architects 
of our time. Painting. — Among the great artists who 
have made the English school of painting so important 
in the nineteenth century, the following may be 
named : Turner, the prince of landscape painters ; 
Landseer and Herring, who excel in animal painting ; 
and Sir David Wilkie, Maclise, Frith, Sir Noel 
Paton, Millais, and Holm an Hunt, who are famous 
as figure painters. Music is much cultivated, although 
it has been found hopeless to compete with the success 
it has attained on the continent, and hence it is to 
foreigners we are indebted for the best compositions, 
and nearly also for the best performers — vocal and 
instrumental. Bennett, Balfe, Costa, Sullivan, and 
Wallace are among the most notable composers. In 
sculpture the most important names are those of Sir 
Francis Chantrey and Gibson. 

SCIENCE. — Of the very numerous benefits resulting 
from Science, we can only give a few. — Photography 
was a discovery of this century. By its means, the 
features of those we love are accurately delineated by 
a rapid and inexpensive process. Chemistry does good 
service in discovering dyes for cloths ; in preparing 
new bleaching processes ; in finding out disinfectants ; 
in making use of articles hitherto deemed useless ; and, 
in short, lending a helping-hand to every department 
of industry. One of the most important discoveries of 
modern times has been chloroform, which has done so 
much to lessen human suffering. Astronomy has 
become one of the grandest sciences, and, by its aid, 
the wonders of the universe are daily made known 
to us. It was now that Lord Eosse erected his 
gigantic telescope, by which new wonders were 
revealed. Geology, a science yet in its infancyj gives 



A CHAPTEE ON ENGLISH PROGRESS. 271 

the world some knowledge of the earth's crust. 
The study of the atmosphere (Meteorology) is found 
to be of immense service ; and the system devised by 
the late Admiral Fitzroy, by predicting the approach 
of storms, has doubtless saved many a vessel from 
shipwreck. Closely allied to scientific inquiry is geo- 
graphical research. The most distinguished in this 
department are — Sir John Franklin, who lost his life 
in trying to discover the North-west passage ; Speke, 
Baker, and Grant, the explorers of the Nile ; and Dr. 
Livingstone, who, according to recent accounts, is still 
most perseveringly endeavouring to find out the real 
source of that mysterious river, and to give us more 
knowledge of Central Africa. 

COMMERCE.— It is during this period that we reap 
the full benefit of our insular position, our mineral 
treasures, our fertile soil, and the industrious habits 
and inventive skill of a free people. More than sixty 
thousand vessels now ply between England and the 
various quarters of the globe. Our great sources of 
wealth are our manufactures. But these received a great 
impulse in the early part of the present reign, from the 
finding of gold in Australia, which caused thousands 
of emigrants to leave our shores, and thus to create a 
new market for our goods. 

MANUFACTURES AND INVENTIONS.— The cotton 
manufactures take the lead among the industries of the 
land ; their annual value being reckoned at 6O,O0O,O0OZ. 
The woollen and linen trades come next. Many im- 
portant improvements Jiave taken place in the machinery 
connected with these departments of business, but we 
cannot here enumerate them. The iron trade has very 
rapidly developed. The invention of the hot blast by 
NiELSON caused the process of smelting to be carried out 
much better than before, and without such waste of fuel. 
In 1829 George Stephenson had invented the locomotive 
engine, and the first railway, between Liverpool and 
Manchester, was opened to the public. Since then, the 
country has been covered with a net- work of lines, over 
which trains may now travel at a speed of sixty miles 
an hour ! Marine engines are every year becoming 

s 



272 HISTORY OF ENaLANB, 

more excellent in design, so that steamers are now able 
to cross th.e Atlantic in little more tlian nine days ! A 
great trinmpli of invention was the electric telegraph, 
first used for the transmission of news in 1837. Scien- 
tific men had long been engaged in examining the 
nature of this wonderful agent, electricity, but it was 
not till about the year mentioned that it was made the 
means by which men, miles apart, could communicate 
with each other almost instantaneously. In 1866, a 
cable was successfully laid along the bottom of the 
Atlantic between England and America : and in 1873, 
there is every probability that there will be a line of 
electric communication right round the world. In laying 
the submarine cables the Great Eastern is employed. She 
is the largest vessel afloat, being 22,500 tons' burthen. 
Her immense size may be judged from the fact that a 
promenade round her deck involves a walk of more than 
a quarter of a mile. She is built of iron, a metal now 
commonly in use for ship-building purposes. There is 
yet one important event to notice in connection with 
the progress of industry. In 1851 the nations of the 
earth were invited to send specimens of their arts and 
manufactures to London. The Great Exhibition Palace, 
where these were shown, was itself a triumph of art, 
being wholly built of glass and iron. On its eight 
miles of tables were exhibited every variety of home 
and foreign industries and inventions, while its courts 
were embellished with the choicest works of art which 
the time could produce. On one occasion there were pre- 
sent in the building at one time no fewer than ninety- 
three thousand persons. In the time of William I. 
that number would have represented a twentieth part of 
the entire population of England. 

COINAGE. — In the reign of William IV., fourpenny- 
pieces, or groats, were coined. In Victoria's reign, the 
guinea has been withdrawn ; the silver florin, or two- 
shilling piece, introduced, as also the threepenny-piece ; 
and for the clumsy old copper pennies and halfpence, 
the lighter and more elegant bronze money has been 
substituted. 



§'^ SAXONS AND BANES, 


827 Egbert 


reigned 10 years. 


837 Ethelwulf . 


jj 


21 ,, 


858 Ethelbald . . ' . 


5 J 


2 „ 


860 Ethelbert . 


J J 


6 „ 


866 Ethelred I. 


5> 


5 „ 


871 AHred, the Great, 


5> 


29i „ 


901 Edward I., the Elder, 


>3 


24 „ 


925 Athelstane 


J J 


15 „ 


940 Edmund I. . ; 


J J 


6 „ 


946 Edred 


S 5 


9 „ 


955 Edwy 


J> 


4 „ 


959 Edgar 


55 


16 „ 


975 Edward II., the Martyr, . 


55 


3 „ 


978 Ethelred II., the Unready, 


55 


38 „ 


1016 Edmund II., Ironside^ 


55 


1 5, 


1017 Canute, the Great, 


55 


19 „ 


1036 Harold I., Harefoot, 


35 


4 „ 


1040 Hardicanute 


; 5 


2 „ 


1042 Edward III., the Confessor, 


J 5 


24 „ 


1066 Harold II., . ' . 


JJ 


9 months 


NOEMAN. 





1065 William I. , the Conqueror, 
1087 William II., Eufus, 
1100 Henry I. . 
1135 Stephen, of Blois, . 



SOyrs.lO mths.25d5^s. 
12 „ 10 „ 24 „ 
35 „ 4 „ 
18 „ 10 ,; 25 „ 



PLANTAGENET. 



1154 Henry II. . 

1189 Richard I., Cceur d'e Lion, 

1199 John, Lackland, 

1216 Henry III. 

1272 Edward I. . 

1307 „ IL 

1327 ., in. 

1377 Eichard II. 



1399 Henry IV. i 



1413 
1422 



.^ ?' 



V. 

VI. 



^ , 


55 


34 „ 


8 


„ 11 


d'e Lion, 


55 


9 5, 


9 


>5 ' 




55 


17 „ 


6 


5 




35 


56 „ 


1 


5 




55 


34 „ 


7 


5 21 




> 


19 „ 


6 


5 13 




33 


50 „ 


5 , 


5 




33 


22 „ 


3 , 


3 8 


LANCASTEE. 








a V 


J» 


13 „ 


5 5 


5 20 


• • 


33 


9 „ 


5 5 


, 11 


, 


)1 


38 „ 


6 3 


3 5 



274 



HISTORY OP ENGLAND, 



2 ea 



YORK. 



1461 Edward IV. 
1483 „ V. 
1483 Richard III. 



1485 Henry VII. 
1509 „ VIII. 
1547 Edward VI. 
1553 Mary I. . 
1558 Elizabeth . 



. re: 


Lgned 22yrs 


1 
2 


mth. 


4dys, 


. 


>> 




J, 






• 


)> 


2„ 


2 


)} 






TUDOR. 


















23 „ 


8 












37 „ 


9 




6 


,» 






• 6„ 


5 




8 


»» 






5„ 


4 




11 


»» 






44 „ 


4 




7 


>» 



STUART— Union of England and Scotland. 



1603 James I. . 
1625 Charles I. . 

1649 Commonwealth, . 

1654 Oliver Cromwell, Protector, 

1658 Richard Cromwell, Protector, 

1659 Commonwealth, Restored 



22 „ 





, J 


3 


23 „ 


9 


s» 


23 


4„ 


10 


?, 


17 


4„ 


8 


J> 


18 




8 


>> 


10 


1 » 


1 


»i 





STUART. 

1660 Charles II. . . „ 24 

1685 James II. . . • ,» 3 
1689 William III. Prince of Orange, and ) g 

Mary II., Joint Sovereigns, S 

1694 William III. alone . „ 7 

1702 Anne . . . ,» . 12 



9 

10 


., 3 

„ 17 


10 


„ 12 


2 

4 


, 8 
,, 24 





BRUNSWICK. 








1714 George I. . 




12 „ 


10 


„ 10 „ 


1727 „ II. . 




S3,, 


4 


, 3 „ 


1760 „ III. 




59 „ 


3 


, 4 „ 


1820 „ IV. 




10 „ 


4 




1830 William IV. , 


1^ 


6„ 


11 


I 24 „ 


1837 Victoria, 


Still reigning. 









CHRONOLOGICAL LIST 



OF THE 



PRINCIPAL AUTHORS OF ENGLAND, WITH 
THE TITLE OF THEIR CHIEF WORK. 



Name. 
Eoger Bacon, 
Sir John Mandeville, 
John Gower, 
John Wickliffe, 
Geoffrey Chaucer, 
Sir Thomas More, 
Roger Ascham, 
Sir Walter Ealeigh, 
Edmund Spenser, 
Sir Philip Sidney, 
Francis (Lord) Bacon, 
William Shakspeare, 

Ben. Jonson, , 

Thomas Hobbes, 
George Herbert, 
Sir Thomas Browne, 
John Milton, 
Samuel Butler, . 
Jeremy Taylor, . 
Abraham Cowley, 
John Bunyan, . 
John Dryden, , 
John Locke, 
Sir Isaac Newton, 
Daniel De Foe, . 
Jonathan Swift, 
Joseph Addison, 
Alexander Pope, 
John Gay, 



Principal Work. 
Opiis Majus, 
Travels in the East, 
Confessio Amantis, 



Translation of the Bible, 1324 

Canterbury Tales, . . 1328 

TJtojpia, . . . 1480 

The Schoolmaster, . 1515 

History of the World, 1552 

Faerie Qtieene, . . 1553 

Arcadia, . . . 1554 

Novum Organum, . 1561 

Hamlet, , . . 1564 
Every Man in his 

Humour, . . 1574 

Leviathan, . . 1588 

The Temple, . . 1593 

Eeligio Medici, . . 1605 

Paradise Lost, . . 1608 

Hudihras, . . . 1612 

The Great Exemplar, 1613 

Davideis, . . . 1618 

Pilgrim^ s Progress, . 1628 

Hind and Panther, . 1631 

Human Understanding, 1632 

Principia, . , . 1642 

Robinson Crusoe, . 1661 

Gulliver's Travels, . 1667 

Spectator, . . . 1672 

Essay on Man, , . 1688 

Beggar's Opera, . 1688 



Bom 
1214 
1300 
1320 



Died 

1292 

1372 

1408 

1384 

1400 

1535 

1568 

1618 

1599 

1586 

1626 

1616 

1637 
1679 
1633 
1682 
1674 
1680 
1667 
1667 
1688 
1700 
1704 
1727 
1731 
1745 
1719 
1744 
1732 



276 



HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 



Name. 
Joseph Butler, . 
James Thomson, 
Henry Fielding, 
Samuel Johnson, 
David Hume, 
Laurence Sterne, 
Thomas Gray, . 
Tobias George Smollet, 
Adam Smith, 
OHver Goldsmith, 
William Cowper, 

Edmund Burke, 

Edward Gibbon, 

William Paley, . 
Dugald Stewart, 
Kobert Burns, . 
Maria Edgeworth, 
William Wordsworth, 
Sir Walter Scott, 
Samuel Taylor Coleridge, 
E,obert Southey, 
Thomas Campbell, 

Henry Hallam, . 

Thomas Moore, . 

Thomas De Quincey, . 

George Gordon (Lord) 

Byron, . 
Percy Bysshe Shelley, 
Felicia Dorothea 

Hemans, 
Thomas Carlyle, 
John Keats, 
Thomas Babington 

(Lord) Macaulay, . 
John Keble, 
Hugh Miller, 
Edward Bulwer (Lord) 

Lytton, 
Elizabeth B. Browning, 
Alfred Tennyson, 
William M. Thackeray, 
Charles Dickens, 
Eobert Browning, 



Principal Work. Born 

Analogy of Religion, . 1692 

The Seasons, . . 1700 

Tom Jones, . . 1707 

English Dictionary, . 1709 

History of England, . 1711 

Tristram Shandy, . 1713 

Elegy in a Churchyard, 1716 

Roderick Random, . 1721 

Wealth of Nations, . 1723 

Vicar of Wahefield, . 1728 

The Task, , . . 1731 
The Sublime and . 

Beautiful, 
Decline and Fall of the 

Roman Empire, , 1737 

Horce Paidince, . . 1743 

The Human Mind, . 1753 

Cottar^ s Saturday Night, 1759 

Moral Tales, . . 1765 

The Excursion, . . 1770 

Waverley, . . . 1771 

The Ancient Mariner, 1772 
Curse of Kehama, 
Pleasures of Hope, 
Constitutional History 

of England, . 
Lalla Rookh, 
Confessions of an OjJtum 

Eater, . . . 1785 



Died 

1752 
1748 
1754 
1784 
1776 
1768 
1771 
1771 
1790 
1774 
1800 



1731 1797 



1794 

1805 
1828 
1796 
1849 
1850 
1832 
1834 
1843 
1844 



1774 
1777 

1777 
1779 



1859 
1852 

1859 
1824 

1822 
1835 

Living 

'1821 



CUlde Harold, . . 1788 

Revolt of Islam, . . 1792 

Forest Sanctuary, . 1794 

French Revolution, . 1795 
Endymion, , . 1796 

History of England, . 1800 1859 

The Christian Year, , 1800 1866 
Testimony of the Rocks, 1802 1856 

The Lady of Lyons, .. 1803 1873 

Aurora Leigh, . . 1809 1861 

In Memoriam, , . 1810 Living 
Vanity Fair, . .1811 1863 
Pickwick Papers, . 1812 1870' 

The Ring and the Book, 1812 Living 



CHRONOLOGICAL LIST 



oir 



DISTINGUISHED PERSONS IN ENGLISH 
HISTOKY. 



Name. 




Born. 


Died. 


Stigand, 


{ Archbishop of Canter- 
( bury. 


1008 


1072 


Nicholas Breakspear, 


Pope Adrian IV., 


1095 


1159 


Thomas a Beckett, 


( Archbishop of Canter- 
l bury, , 


1119 


1170 


Stephen Langton, o 


i Archbishop of Canter- 
( bury, . 


1151 


1228 


Simon de Montfort, . 


Earl of Leicester, 


1206 


1265 


William of Wykeham, 


Architect, . 


1324 


1404 


Edward, Black Prince, 


General, . 


1330 


1375 


William Caxton, 


Printer, 


1412 


1491 


Thomas Wolsey, 


Cardinal, . 


1471 


1530 


Stephen Gardiner, 


Bishop of Salisbury, , 


1483 


1555 


Thomas Cromwell, 


Minister of State, 


1490 


1540 


Edmund Bonner, 


Bishop of London, 


1495 


1569 


Reginald Pole, . i 


Cardinal, i 


1500 


1558 


Sir Thomas Gresham, 


Merchant, . 


1519 


1579 


Sir John Hawkins, ^ 


Admiral, ^ i 


1520 


1595 


William Cecil, Lord 
Burleigh, 


i Statesman, 


1520 


1598 


Sir Francis Walsingham 


, Statesman, * 


1.536 


1590 


Sir Francis Drake, 


Admiral, . 


1545 


1595 


Sir Martin Frobisher, 


Admiral, . 




1594 


Sir Edward Coke, 


Lawyer, 


1552 


1633 


Kobert Cecil, 


Statesman, 


1565 


1612 


Inigo Jones, 


Architect, . 


1572 


1652 


Geo. Villiers, Duke of 
Buckingham, . 


i Statesman, 


1592 


1628 


John Hampden, 


Parliamentary Orator, 


1594 


1643 



^TS 



KISTOEf OF 22NGLAND. 



-• Name. 
Thomas (Lord) Fairfax, 
Sir Henry Vane, 

George Fox, 

Robert Boyle, . 

Sir Christopher Wren, 

John Churchhill, Duke 

of Marlborough, 
Sir Robert Walpole, . 
George Anson, . 
William Hogarth, 

John Wesley, . 

William Pitt, Earl of 

Chatham, 
Sir Joshua Reynolds, 
Robert (Lord) Clive, , 
James Wolfe, 
John Howard, . 
James (Captain) Cook, 
Sir Richard Arkwright, 
James Watt, 
Sir William Herschel, 
Edmund Cartwright, 
Charles James Fox, . 
Horatio (Lord) Nelson 
William Pitt, . 
William Wilberforce, 
Richard (Marquis) 

Wellesley, 
Sir John Moore, 
Arthur Wellesley, Duke 

of Wellington, 
George Canning, 
Sir Humphrey Davy, 
Henry (Lord) Brougham, 
George Stephenson, . 
Sir John Franklin, 
Sir Robert Peel, 
Lord Raglan, 
Michael Faraday, 
Colin Campbell, Lord 

Clyde, _ . 
Sir Roderick Murchison, 
Sir John W. F. Herschel, 
Sir Henry Havelock, 
Robert Stephenson, . 
Richard Cobden, 



General, .' 
Parliamentary Orator, 
Founder of Society of 

Friends, . 
Natural Philosopher, 
Architect, , 

General, 

Statesman, 
Navigator, 
Painter, 

Founder of Wesleyan 
Methodism, 

Statesman, 

Painter, 

General, 

General, 

Philanthropist, 

Navigator, 

Inventor, . 

Inventor, . 

Astronomer, 

Inventor, , 

Statesman, 

Admiral, . 

Statesman, 

Philanthropist, 



r General, 

General, 

c General, 

Statesman, 

Chemist, 

Statesman, 

Engineer, 

Navigator, 

Statesman, 

General, 

Chemist, 

General, p 

Geologist, 

Astronomer, 

General, 

Engineer, 

Statesman, 



Born. 
1611 
1612 

1624 
1626 
1632 



Died. 
1671 
1662 

1690 
1691 
1723 



1650 1722 



1676 
1697 
1697 



1745 
1762 
1764 



1703 1791 
1708 1778 



1723 
1725 
1726 
1726 
1728 
1732 
1736 
1738 
1743 
1749 
1758 
1759 
1759 

1760 

1761 



1792 
1774 
1759 
1790 
1779 
1792 
1819 
1822 
1823 
1806 
1805 
1806 
1833 

1842 

1809 



1769 1852 



1770 

1778 
1779 
1781 
1786 

1788 
1788 
1791 



1827 
1829 
1868 
1848 
1847 
1850 
1855 
1867 



1792 1863 



1792 
1792 
1795 
1803 
1804 



1871 
1871 

1857 
1859 
1865 



INDEX. 



Abbey, Battle, 43. 

Acre, 64, 234. 

Addington, Henry, 217. 

Adela, 53. 

Adelaide, Queen, 227. 

Agincourt, Battle of, 100. 

Agricola, Julius, 12. 

Aix-la-Chapelle, Treaties of, 17S, 205. 

Albans, St., Battles of, 106, lOS, 

Albany, Duke of, 113. 

Albert, Prince Consort, 230, 235. 

Albuera, Battle of, 221. 

Alden Castle, 199. i 

Alexander III., Pope, 59. 

Alexander III. of Scotland, 77. 

Alfred the Great, 24, 26. 

Alliance, The Triple, 196. 

Alma, Battle of, 235. 

Alnwick, 60. 

Alva, Duke of, 144. ^ 

Ambleteuse, 187. 

America, Discovery of, 121. 

Amiens, Council of, 75. 

Amiens, Peace of, 218. 

Amsterdam, 179. 

Angles, 15. 

Anglia, East, 17. 

Anne of Bohemia, 94. 

Anne of Britanny, 118. 

Anne of Cleves, 129. 

Anne of Denmark, 154. 

Anne, Queen, 194. 

Anselm of Canterbury, 50. 

Antoninus, Pius, 13. 

Argyle, Marquis of, 159. 

Argyle, Earl of, 183. 

Argyle, Duke of, 200. 

Aries, 15. 

Arlington, Henry, Lord, 178i 

Armada, Spanish, 145. 

Arras, 104. 

Arthur, King, 18. 

Arthur, Plantagenet, 63. 

Arthur, Prince, 120. 

Articles, Six, 132. 

Ashley, Lord, 178. 

Assassination plot, 193. 

Athelstane, 25. 

Atterbury, Bishop of Kochester, 201. 

Audley, Lord, 120. 



Atigustine, St., 19. 
Austria, Archduke of, 193. 
Auverquerque, 192. 
Aymer de Valence, 82. 

Bacon, Francis, 152. 

Badajoz, Battle of, 221. 

Balaclava, Battle of, 235. 

Ball, John, 92. 

Baliol, John, 79. 

Balmerino, Lord, 20S. 

Baltimore, 223.1 

Banbury, Battle of, 111.-^ 

Bannockburn, Battle of, 84. 

Barnet, Battle of, 112. 

Bartholomew, Massacre of St., 144. 

Battle Abbey, 43. 

Bavaria, Elector of, 1 93. 

Beaton, Cardinal, 130. 

Beaufort, Bishop of Winchester, 102. 

Beauge, 101. 

Becket, Thomas"^, 56. 

Bede, The Venerable, 29. 

Bedford, Duke of, 102. 

Belleisle, 209. 

Bellerophon, 222, 

Benevolences, 118. -. 

Bentick, Earl of Portland, 192. 

Berengaria of Navarre, 63. 

Bericus, 10. 

Berkeley, Castle, 83. 

Bernicia, 17, 28. 

Bertha, 19. 

Bible, Translation of, 06. 

Black Death, 89. 

Black Hole of Calcutta, 207. 

Black Water, 147. 

Blenheim, Battle of, 197. 

Boadicea, Queen, 11. 

Boleyn, Anne, 125. 

Bolton Castle, 143. 

Bombay, 175. 

Bonaparte, General, 217. 

Bonner, Bishop, 137. 

Boroughbridge, Battle of, 84. 

Boston, 211. 

Bosworth, Battle of, 116. 

BothweU, Earl of, 142. 

Boulogne, Siege of, 130. 

Bovines, 69. 



280 



INDEX. 



Boyne, Battle of, 190. 
Breda, Declaration from, ITS. 
Breda, Treaty of, 177. 
Brest, Battles of, 122, 206. 
Bretigny, Treaty of, 90. 
Bretwalda, 20. 
Brigantes, 11. 
Bright, John, 235. 
Bruce, Robert, 79. 
Buckingham, Duke of, 114, 17S, 
Bunker's HiU, Battle of, 212. 
Burdett, Sir Francis, 225. 
Burmese War, 226. 
Busaco, Battle of, 220. 
Bute, Lord, 209. 
Byng, Admiral, 19S, 201. 

Cabal Ministry, ITS. 

Cade, Jack, 106 

Cadiz, Battles off, 145, 146. 

Caen, 48, 100. 

Calais, 89, 138. 

Calcutta, Black Hole of, 20T. 

Calder, Sir Robert, 218. 

Caligula, 10. 

Calvin, John, 140. 

Camalodunum (Rochester), 11. 

Cambray, League of, 122. 

Campeggio, Cardinal, 125. 

Camperdown, Battle of, 216. 

Canada, 20T, 232. 

Canning, George, 225. 

Canterbury, 19. 

Canute, 36. 

Caractacus, 11. 

Carew, Sir Peter, 185. 

Caris brook Castle, 164. 

Caribbean Islands, 210. 

Caroline of Anspach, 203. 

Caroline of Brunswick, 224. 

Carpenter, General, 200. 

Carr, Robert, 151. 

Carteret, John, Earl of Granville, 204. 

Cartismandua, 11. 

Cartwrigbt, Thomas, 140. 

Cassiterides Islands, T. 

Cassivelaunus, 8. 

Catesby, Robert, 150. 

Catherine of France, 101. 

Catherine of Arragon, 120. 

Catherine of Braganza, 175. 

Catholic ReKef Bill, 226. 

Cearls or Ceorls, 21. 

CecU, William, Lord Burleigh, 13y. 

Cecil, Robert, 151. 

Cerdic, IT. 

Charlemagne, Emperor of Germany,'23. 

Charles IV. of France, 84. 

Charles V. of France, 90. 

Charles VI. of France, 99. 

Charles VII. of France, 101. 

Charles XI. of France, 109. 

Chaiies V. of Germany, 124. 



Charles II. of Spain, 193. 
Charles XII. of Sweden, 201. 
Charles I., 154. 
Charles II., ITS. 
Charles Edward, Prince, 204. 
Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, 209. 
Charlotte, Princess, 223. 
Charter, People's, 231. 
Chartists, 230. 
Chaucer, Geoffrey, 96. 
Chester, 14. 

Chevalier de St. George, 200. 
Chevy Chase, Battle of, 93. 
Cholera, Asiatic, 228. 
Christianity, 14. 

Churchill, John, Duke of Marl- 
borough, 196. 
Cintra, Convention of, 220. 
Ciudad Rodrigo, Battle of, 221. 
Clarendon, Constitutions of, 6T. 
Clarendon, Earl of (Edward Hyde), 1T4. 
Clement VII., Pope, 12T. 
Clifford, Sir Robert, 119. 
Clifford, Lord, 1T8. 
Clive, Robert, 20T. 

Cobham, Lord (Sir John Oldcastle), 99. 
Cobden, Richard, 233. 
Coleraine, 153. 
Columbus, 121. 

Commission, Court of High, 139. 
Commons, House of, 96. 
Commonwealth, The, 166. 
Compiegne, 104. 
Comyn, John, 81. 
Constance, 66. 
Conventicle Act, 1T5. 
Conway, Lord, 158. 
Copenhagen, Battle of 21S. 
Corfe Castle, 34. 
Corn Law, Anti-League, 233. 
Cornwallis, Lord, 213. 
Corsica, Island of, 216. 
Corunna, Battle of, 220. 
Covenant, National, 157. 
Coverdale, Miles, 131. 
Coway Stakes, 8. 
Cranmer, Thomas, 126, 131. 
Crecy, Battle of, 88. 
Crimean War, 234. 
Cromwell, Thomas, 126. ■ 
Cromwell, Henry, 16T. 
Cromwell, Oliver, 160. 
Cromwell, Richard, 1T2. 
Oulloden Moor, Battle of, 205. 
Cuthbert, St., 2T. 
Cymri, 9. 

Danby, Earl of (Sir Thomas 

Osborne), 180, 186. 
Danegelt, 35, 4T. 
Darnley, Lord, 141. 
David of Wales, T8. 
David II. of Scotland, 86. 



INDEX. 



281 



David, Earl of Huntingdon, 79. 
Deal, 7, 119. ,* 
Deira, Saxon, 17. 
Derwentwater, Earl of, 200. 
Dettingen, Battle of, 204. 
Devonshire, Earl of, 18(3. 
De Witt, Admiral, 177. 
Dieppe, 191. 
Diocletian, 15. 
Domesday Book, 47. 
Dominica, 209. 
Domremy, 103. 
Douglas, Earl of, 87. 
Dover, Treaty of, 178. 
Do-wla, Rajah, 207. 
Downs, Battle of, 168. 
Drake, Admiral, 145* 
Drogheda, 167. 
Druidism. 9. 
Dudley, 121. 

Dunbar, Battles of, SO, 1G7. 
Dundalk, 190. 
Dundee, Viscount, 189. 
Dunes, Battle of the, 171. 
Dungeness, 204. 
Dunkirk, 171, 175, 191. 
Dunstable, 126. 
Dunstan, .81. 

Dupleix, Governor of Coroniandel 
Coast, 207. 

Edgab- Atheling, 42, 45. 

Edgehill, Battle of, 161. 

Edmund the Eldei, 31. 

.Edmund Ironside, 41. 

Edmund, Earl of March. 06. 

Edmund, Earl of Suffolk, 120. 

Edied, 31. 

Education Act, Elementary, 2G4. 

Edward the Elder, 30. 

Edward II., 34. 

Edward the Confessor. 40. 

Edward I., 75, 77. 

Edward II., First Prince of Wales, 

78, 82. 
Edward III., 85. 
Edward, Black Prince, S3. 
Edward IV., 107. 
Edward, Prince, 111. 
Edward V., 113. 
Edward VI., 130. 

Edward, Duke of Buckingham, 124. 
Edwin, 47. 
Edwy, 32. 
Egbert, 21. 
Elba, Island of, 221. 
Eleanor of France, 55, 62. 
Eleanor of Provence, 72. 
Eleanor, Daughter of King John, 73. 
Elfrida, 34. 
Elgiva, 32. 

Elizabeth Grey. Lady, 110. 
Elizabeth of York, 117. 



Elizabeth, Queen, 130. 

Elizabeth, Princess, 151. 

EUa, 17, 20. 

EUiot, General, 213. 

Empson, 121. 

EnniskiUen, 189. 

Eric, King of Norway, 79. 

Ernest, King of Hanover, 230. 

Essex, Kingdom of, 17. 

Essex, Lord, 182. 

Essex, Earl of (Robert Devereux), 147. 

Estaples, Treaty of, 118. 

Ethelbald, 25. 

Ethelbert, 19, 22. 

Ethelred II., the Unready, 34. 

Bthelwulf, 24. 

Eustace, 54. 

Evesham, 76. 

Fairfax. Thomas, Lord, 162. 

Falkirk, 81. 

Farrendon, 80. 

Fawkes, Guy, 150. 

Fenian Conspiracy, 231. 

Ferdinand V. of Spain, 122. 

Feversham, Earl of, 183. 

" Field of the Cloth of Gold," 124. 

Finisterre, Cape, Battle at, 218. 

Fire, The Great, 177. 

Five Mile Act, 176. 

Fleetwood. Charles, 167. 

Flodden, Battle of, 123. 

Folkland, 21 

Fontenov, Battle of, 204, 

Foster, Mr., 200. 

Fotheringay Castle, 144. 

Fox, Henry, Lord Holland, 206. 

Fox, Charles James, 212. 

Franilingham Castle, 135. 

Francis I. of France, 124. 

Francis II. of Prance (Dauphin), 141. 

Frederick, Elector Palatine of the 

Rhine, 151. 
Frederick the Great, 199. 
Frederick, Prince of Wales, 203. 
Free Trade, 233. . 
Frisians, 15. 

Frobisher, Martin, Admiral, 145. 
Frost, Williams, and Jones, 231. 

Gael, 9. 

Gage, General, 212. 
Gama, Vasco de, 121. 
Gardiner, Bishop, 136. 
Gaveston, Piers de, 82. 
Catholic Association, Tlie, 22G. 
Geoffrey of Anjou, 52. 
Geoffrey Plantagenet, 50. 
George, Duke of Clarence, 110. 
George of Denmark, 194. 
George L, 199. 
George II., 202. 
George III., 209. 



282 



INDEX. 



George IV.; 224,' 

Geneva, 140. 

Germains, St., 187. 

Ghent, Peace of, 223. 

Gibraltar, Siege of, 197. 

Gisors, Peace of, 51. 

Glencoe, Massacre of, 192. 

Glendewer, Owen, 97. 

Gloucester, Earl of, 76. 

Gloucester, Duke of, 77. 

Goderich, Viscount, 226. 

Good Hope, Cape of, 121, 218. 

Goodwin Sands, 168, 176. 

Gordon, Catherine, 119. 

Gordon, Lord George, 214i 

Goree Island, 207. 

Gravesend, Battle of, 177. 

Greece, Independence of, 227. 

Gregory I., Pope, 19. 

Gregory VII., Pope (HildehrandJ, 42. 

Grenada, 210. 

Grenville, George, 210, 

Grey, Sir John, 110. 

Grey, Lady Jane, 134. 

Grey, Lord, 149. 

Grey, Lord, 184. 

Guala, Pope's Legate, 72. 

Guiana, 152. 

Guipuscoa, 122. 

Guise, Duke of, 138. 

Guisnes, 124. 

Guthred, 28. 

Guthrum, 28. 

Habeas Corpus Act, 181. 

Hadrian IV., Pope, 56. 

Halifax, Marquis of, 184. 

Hamilton, Duke of, 165. 

Hampden, John, 157. 

Harfleur, 100. 

Hardicanute, 39. 

Harold, 39. 

Haslerig, 160. 

Hastings, Lord, 114. 

Hastings, Battle of, 43. 

Hastings, John, 79. 

Havannah, 210. 

Havre, 191, 206. 

Hawkins, Admiral, 145. 

Helena, St., Island of, 222, 

Hengist, 16. 

Henrietta Maria, of France, 154. 

Henry L, 50. 

Henry II., 55. 

Henry III., 72. 

Henry IV., 95. 

Henry v., 98. 

Henry VI., 102. 

Henry VII., 116. 

ipenry VIIL, 121, 218. 

Henry V. of Germany, 52, 

Henry of Anjou, 54. 

Henry VI. of Germany, 64. 



Henry, Earl of Lancaster, 85. 

Henry of Castile, 90. . 

Henry, Earl of Derby, 95. 

Henry, Prince, 60. 

Henry d'Almaine, 75. 

Henry, Earl of Richmond, 115. 

Henry, Prince, 151. 

Heniy, Cardinal York, 205. 

Heptarchy, 17. 

Hereward, 46. 

Hertford, Earl of, 131. 

Hildebrand (Pope Gregory VII.), 42. 

Hill, 198. 

Hoche, General, 216, 

Holbeach, 151, 

HoUis, Lord, 160. 

Holmby House, 163. 

Honorius, 13. 

Hood, Admiral, 

Hooper, John, 137. 

Hope, Cape of Good, 121. 

Horsa, 16. 

Hounslow Heath. 185. 

Howard, Sir Edward, 122. 

Howard, Catherine, 129. 

Howard, Lord of Effingham, 145.. 

Howe, Lord, 216. 

Hubert of Canterbury, 66. 

Huguenots, 144. 

Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, lOZ. 

Huntingdon, 56. 

Hyde, Anne, 182. 

ICENI, 11. 

Ina of Wessex, 22, 

Independents, 161. 

India, East, Company, 153, 229. 

Indian Mutiny, 235. 

Indulgence, Declaration of, 179. 

Inkerman, 235. 

Innocent III., Pope, 67. 

Interdict, England under, 67. 

International Exhibition, 236. 

Interregnum, 187. 

Investiture, Eight of, 51, 

Ipswich, 189. I 

Ireland, Conquest of, 59.. 

Ireton, Henry, 167. 

Irish Brigade, 190. 

Irish Rebellion, 231. 

Irish Church Disestablished, 233. 

Ironsides, The, 162. 

Isabella of France, 82. 

Isabella of Scotland, 86. 

Isabella of Prance, 94. 

Isabella of France, 101. 

Itius, Port, 7. 

Jacobites, 191, 26l. 
Jacqueline, Countess of Hainault, 102, 
Jacquetta of Luxemburg, 104. 
James I. of Scotland, 98, 113. 
James IV. of Scotland, 123. 



INDEX. 



James VI. of Scotland and I. of Eng- 
land, 142. 

James II., Duke of York, 1T6. 

Jeffreys, Judge, 184. 

Jennings, Sarah, Duchess of Marl- 
borough, 196. 

Jervis, John, 216. 

Jews, 62, 79, 

Joan of Arc, 103. 

John II. of France, 90. 

John of Gaunt, 94. 

John, Duke of Burgundy, 99. 

John, Duke of Bedford, 102. 

John, Knights of St., 218. 

John, Prince, afterwards King, 61, 66. 

Joseph, King of Spain, 220. 

Julian Year, 208. 

Julius Csesar, 7. 

Julius II., Pope, 122. 

Jury, Trial by, 61. 

Jutes, 16. 

Juxon, Bishop of London, 165. 

Kelts, 9. 

Ken, Bishop, 185. 

Kenmure, Lord, 200. 

Kent, Edward, Duke of, 223, 230. 

Kenilworth Castle, 75. 

Kenilworth, Dictum of, 76 

KilUekrankie, Pass of, 189. 

Kilmarnock, Lord, 205. 

Kimbolton, Lord, 160. 

Kinsale, 148. 

Kirk of Field, 142. 

Kirke, Colonel, 184. 

Kirkpatrick, 81. 

Knox, John, 140. 

Konigsmark, Count, 199. 

Lafayette, General, 212, 

La Hogue, Battle off, 191. 

Lake, General, 217. 

Lake, Bishop, 185. 

Lambert, General, 172. 

Langside, Battle of, 143. 

Lanfranc, 46, 50. 

Langton, Stephen, 67., 

Latimer, Hugh, 137. 

Laud, Archbishop, 156. 

Lauderdale, Duke of, 178. 

Leake, Admiral, 198. 

Leighton, Dr., 156. 

Leipzig, 221. 

Leo IV., Pope, 25. 

LeoX., Pope, 124. 

Leopold, Duke of Austria, 64 

Leopold, King of the Belgians, 223. 

Leslie, Sir David (Earl of Leven), 158. 

Leven, Loch, 142. 

Leven, Earl of (Sh- David Leslie), 159. 

Lewes, Mise of, 75, 

Lexington, 212. 

Limerick, 167» .,. ,_ 



Limerick, Treaty.of, 190. 

Limoges, 91. 

Lincoln, 14. 

" Lion of Justice," 52. 

Lionel, Duke of Clarence, 95. 

Liverpool, Lord, 221. 

Llewellyn, Prince of Wales, 73. 

Lloyd, Bishop, 185. 

Lollards, 98. 

Londinium, 11, 

Londonderry, 153, 189. 

Louis VI. of France, 51. 

Louis VIII. of France, 71, 

Louis IX. c«i France, St., 75. 

Louis XL, 113. 

Louis XII, of France, 123. 

Louis XVI. of France, 212, 216. 

Louis XVIII. of France, 221. 

Lovat, Lord, 205. 

Lovel, Lord, 117 

Lowestoft, 176. 

Lucia, St., Island of, 210. 

Ludlow, 107. 

Luther, Martin, 127, 

Lutterworth, 96. 

Lyme Regis, 183. 

Macbeth, 41. 

Magdalene College, 185. 

Magna Charta, 69, 

Maitland, Captain, 222. 

Malaga, 197. 

Malcolm, III., Kenmore, of Scotland, 
31, 41. 

Malcolm IV. of Scotland, 79. 

Malo, St., 191. 

Malta, Island of, 217. 

Man, Isle of, 105. 

Mantes, 48. 

Mar, Earl of, 200. 

Margaret, Maid of Norway, 79. 

Margaret of Anjcu, 104. 

Margaret of Burgundy, 119. 

Margaret Tudor, 120. 

Maria Theresa, 204, 

Marlborough, Duke of (John Church- 
hill), 196. 

Marston Moor, Battle of, 162. 

Martinico, Island of, 210, 

Mary, daughter of Henry VII., and 
wife of Louis XII, of France, 123. 

Mary I., 130. 

Mary II„ 168, 192, 

Mary, Queen of Scots, 1-10. 

Mary of Guise, 141. 

Mary d'Este, 182. 

Masham, Mrs., 196. 

Massachusetts, 212. 

Massena, General, 220. 

Matilda, 51. 

Matilda of Anjou, 52, 64. 

Maximilian I., Emperor of Qqv-> 
many, 122. 



28^ 



INDEX. 



Mclan, 192. 
Mehemet Ali, 234, 
Melbourne, Viscount, 229. 
Mercia, Kingdom of, 17. 
Merovingians, 19. 
Millenary Petition, 150. 
Milton, Jolm, 166. 
Minorca, 206. i 

Mona, Island of (Anglesea), 10. 
Monk, General, 1T2. 
Monmouth, Duke of, 181. 
Montacute, Lord, 109. 
Monteith, John, 81. 
Montereau, 101. 
Montfort, Simon de, 73. 
Montfort, Countess de, 88. 
Monument, The, 177. 
Moore, Roger, 159. 
Moore, Sir John, 220. 
Morcar, 47. 

More, Sir Thomas, 126. 
Mortimer, Edward, 97. 
Mortimer's'Cross, 107. 
Mortimer, Roger, 84. 
Mortmain, Statue of, 77. 
Montrose, Earl of, 163. 
Mountjoy, Lord, 147. 
Murray, or Moray, Earl of, 143. 
Mutiny Act, 189. 

Namue, 191. 
Nantes, Edict of, 185. 
Nantwich, 162, 172. 
Napier, Sir Charles, 234. 
Napoleon I., 222. 
Naseby, Battle of, 163. 
National Covenant, 157. 
Navarino, Battle of, 227. 
Neath Abbey, 85. 
Nelson, Horatio, Lord, 216. 
Neville's Cross, 89. 
Newark, 163. 
Newcastle, 158, 
Newcastle, Duke of, 20G. 
New England, 153. 
New Forest, 48. 
New Orleans, 223. 
New Plymouth, 153. 
Nile, Battle of the, 217. 
Norfolk, Duke of, 144. 
Norham Castle, 79. 
Normans, The (Northmen), 24. 
North, Lord, 211. 
Northampton, 58, 107. 
, Northumbria, Kingdom of, 17. 
Nottingham, Earl of, 95. 
Nottingham, 161. 

Gates, Titus, 180. 
O'Connell, Daniel, 226, 231, 
O'Connor, Fergus, 231. 
Oflfa, 17. , 
Qlav, ?6,, 



Olav, Trigvason, 35. 

Oldcastle, Sir John, Lord Cobhara, 99„ 

O'Neal, Shan, Earl of Desmond, 147. 

O'Neal, Hugh, Earl of Tyrone, 147. 

O'NeaU, Sir Philem, 159. 

Opdam, Admiral, 176. 

Orleans, Duke of, 99. 

Orleans, Siege of, 103. 

Ormond, Marquis of, 166. 

Orthez, Battle of, 221. 

Osborne, Sir Thomas, Earl of Dauby, 

180. 
Osburga, 26. 
Osulph, 31. 
Otterbourne, 93. 
Over bury, Sir Thomas, 152. 
Oxford Statutes, 74, 

Paris, Peace of, 213. 
Parker, Archbishop of Canterbury,13^. 
Parliament, Institution of, 73. 
Parliament, Mad, 74. 
Parliament, Long, 158. 
Parliament, Rump, 165. 
Parliament, Barebones, 169. 
Parliament, The Convention, 173, 
Parliaments, Union of Scottish and 

EngUsh, 195. 
Parliaments, Union of Great Britain 

and Ireland. 217. 
Parliaments, Septennial, 201. 
Parma, Duke of, 146. 
Parr, Catharine, 129. 
Passaro, Cape, 201. 
Pavia, Battle of, 125. 
Pecquigne, Treaty of, 113. 
Pedro the Cruel, 90. 
Peel, Sir Robert, 226. 
Pembroke, Earl of, 72. 
Penrith, 205. 

Percy, Henry Hotspur, 97. 
Percy, Earl of Northumberland, 97, 
Percy, Earl of Worcester, 97. " 
Peter, Bishop of Winchester, 72. 
Peter's Pence, 25. 
Pevensey, 43, 
Peterhead, 200. 
Philip Augustus of France, 61. 
Philip VI. of Valois, 87. 
Philip the Fair of France, 120. 
Philip II, of Spain, 135. 
Philip V. of Spain, 196, 201. 
Philippa, Queen, 85, 89. 
Philippine Islands, 210. 
Phoenicians, 7. 
Picts, 13. 
Picts' Wall, 13. 
Pilgrim Fathers, 153. 
Pilgrimage of Grace, 127 
Pinkie, Battle of, 132. 
Pitt, William, Earl of Chatham, 

203, 206. 
Pitt, William, 214. 



INDEX. 



!85 



Plague, Great, 176, 
Plantagenet, 55. 
Plassey, Battle of, 203. 
Plautius, 11. 
Poictiers, Battle of, 90. 
Pole, Michael de la, 93. 
Pole, Cardinal, 136. 
Pontefract Castle, 95. 
Poor Law Amendment Act, 229. 
Porteous, Captain, 203. 
Portsmouth, Battle off, 130. 
Poyer, Colonel, 165, 
Pragmatic Sanction, 204. 
Presbyterians, 15''( . ? 
Preston, 165, 200. ' 
Prestonpaus, Battle of, 205. 
Pretender, The Old, 200. 
Pride, Colonel, 165. 
Prynne, 156. 
Pym, John, 160. 

QuADEtrPLE Alliance, 201. 
Quebec, 207. 

Quentin, St., Battle of, 13S. 
Quiberon, 206. / 

Raleigh, Sir "Walter, 149. 

Ravenspur, 112. 

Reform BiU, 228, 233; 

Reformation, English, 127. 

Rennes, 118. 

Revolution, French, 215. 

Rheims, 103. 

Richard Stvongbow, 60. - 

Richard I. , Coeur de Lion, 62. 

Richard II., 91. 

Richard III., Duke of Gloucester. 112. 

Richard, Earl of Pembroke, 73. 

Richard of Cornwall, 73. 

Richard, Duke of York. 115. 

Richmond, Sheen, 91. 

Ridley, Nicholas, 137. 

Right, Petition of, 155. 

Rights, Declaration, of, ISS. 

Ripon. 158. 

Rising Castle, 87. 

Rizzio, David, 141. 

Robert. Duke of Noi-mandy, 47. 

Robert, Duke of Gloucester, 54. 

Robert de Vere, 93. 

Rochester, Camalodunum, 11. 

Roehelle, Siege of, 155. * 

Rockingham, Marquis of, 211. 

Rodrigo, Ciudad, Battle of, 221. 

Roger, Earl of March, 95. 

Rogers, John, 137. 

Rooke, Admiral, 197. 

Roslin, 81. 

Ross, General, 223. 

Runnymede, 69. 

Rupert, Prince, 176. 

Russell, Lord, 182. 

Bttssell, Admiral, 186, 191. 



Ruyter De, Admiral, 177, 
Rye House Plot, 182. 
Ryswick. Peace of, 191. 

Sackville, Lord George, 207. 

Saladin, 64. 

Salamanca, Battle of, 221. 

Salic Law, 230 

Bancroft, Archbishop, 185. . 

Saratoga, Battle of, 212. 

Sardinia, Island of, 198. 

Sarum, 47. 

Savoy, Duke of, 171. 

Saxons, 13, 15. 

Scarborough Castle, 137. 

Schomberg, Marshal, 190. 

Scone, 168. | 

Scots. 13. 

Scrope, Archbishop of York, 97. 

Sebastopol, Siege of. 235. 

Security, Act of, 194. 

Sedgemore, Battle of, 183. 

Selkirk, Battle of, 163. 

Senlac, 43. 

Sepoys, 208. 

Seven Years' War, 206. 

Seymour, Jane, 127. 

Seymour, Lord, 132. 

Sheerness, 177. 

Shelburne, Lord, 215. 

Sheriffmuir, 200. 

Ship-money, 36, 157. 

Shrewsbury, 97. 

Shrewsbury. Earl of, ISO. 

Sicily, 74. 201. 

Sidonia, Medina, 145. 

Sidney, Algernon, 182. 

Sidney, Hemy, 186. 

SUures, 11. 

Simnel, Lambert, 117. 

Simons, Priest, 117. 

Sixtus V.,Pope, 145. 

Slavery, Abolition of, 229. 

Sluys, 88. 

Sophia of Hanover, 194. 

Sophia Dorothea of Zelle, 199. 

Sophia of Prussia, 199. 

Soult, Marshal, 220. 

South Sea Company, 202. 

Southwold Bay, Battle at, 179. 

Spenser, Hugh de, 84. 

Spurs, Battle of the, 122. 

Stair, Earl of, 204. 

Stanhope, General, 200. 

Stanley, Sir William, 119. 

Star Chamber, 121. 

Stephen of Blois, 53, 

Stigand, 42. 

Stoke, Battle of, 117. 

Stonehenge, 10. 

Stratford, Stony, 114. 

Stuart, Lady Arabella, 149. 

Suetonius Pauliaus, 11. 



286 



INDEX. 



Suffolk, Dake of, 135. 
Sunderland, Earl of, 192. 
Surrey, Earl of, 123, 
Sussex, Kingdom of, 17. 
Sweyn of Denmark, 35. 

Tacitus, 9, 12. 

Talavera, Battle of, 220. 

Tangier, 175. 

Temple, Sir William, 181. 

Tenchebray, 51. 

Teronanne, Siege of, 122. 

Test Acts, 184, 226. 

Tewkesbury, Battle of, 112. 

Thanes, 21. 

Thanet, Isle of, 16. 

Theobald of Blois, 53. 

Thomas, Earl of Lancaster, 83. 

Thomas, Duke of Clarence, 98. 

Thrall, 21. 

Tilsit, Peace of, 219. 

Tobago, Island of, 210. 

Toleration Act, 188. 

Tooke, Home, 214. 

Toronto, 223. 

Torres Vedras, 220. 

Toulon, 216. 

Toulouse, Battle of, 221. 

Townshend, Lord, 200, 211. 

Trafalgar, Battle of, 218. 

Trelawny, Bishop, 185. 

Triple Alliance, 178. 

Tromp, Van, 168. 

Troaville, Admiral, 191. 

Troyes, Treaty of, 101. 

Tudor, Jasper, Earl of Pembroke, 107. 

Turner, Bishop, 185. 

Tyler, Wat, 92. 

Tyndal, William, 131. 

Tyrconnel, Governor of Ireland, 189. 

Tyrrel, Walter, 50. 

Ulster, King of, 60. 
Uniformity, Act of, 175. 
Universities thrown open, 233. 
Ushant, 216. 
Utrecht, Peace of, 198. 
Uxbridge, 162, 

Vere, Robert de, 93. 
Verulamium (St. Alban's), 11. 

Vespasian, 12. 

Victoria of Sase-Coburg, 223. 



Victoria, Queen, 230, 
Villeneuve, Admiral, 218. 
Villiers, Duke of Buckingham, 152. 
Vincennes, 101. 

Vincent, Cape St., Battle off, 216. 
Vinegar Hill, 217. 
Vittoria, Battle of, 221. 
Vortigern, 16. 

Wakejield, Battle of, 107. 

Walcheren, 220. 

Waldenses, 171. 

Walhalla, 18. 

WaUace, William, 81. 

Walpole, Sir Robei i, 202. 

Walsingham, Sir Francis, 144, 

Warbeck, Perkin, 119, 

Warenne, Earl of Surrey, 80. 

Warwick, Eaii of, the King-Maker, 108. 

Washington, George, 212. 

Waterloo, Battle of, 222. 

Wellington, Duke of, 220. 

Wentworth, Earl of Strafford, 156. 

Wessex, Kingdom of, 17. 

White, Bishop, 185. 

Whitehall Palace, 165. 

Wicliffe, John, 96. 

Wilkes, George, 210. 

William I., The Conqueror, 45. 

William II., Bufus, 49. 

William III. of Orange, 168, 188. 

Wilham IV., 227, 

William, Prince, 52. 

William, Longchamp, Bishop of Ely, 
63. 

William, Augustus, Duke of Cumber- 
land, 203. 

William, Duke of Gloucester, 194. 

Witenagemot, 21, 49, 66. 

Wodan, 21. 

Wolfe, General, 207. 

Wolsey, Thomas, Cardinal, 123. 

Worcester, Battle of, 168. 

Woodville, Richard. Earl of Rivers, 110. 

Wriothesley, Chancellor, 131. 

Wyatt, Sir Thomas, 135. 

York, Duke of (James II.), 176, 
York, Duke of, 216. 
York Town, 213. 

ZUYLESTEIN, 



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